Buxtehude to Bach- The Influence of Dietrich Buxtehude on J.S. Bach in Organ Performance, Mechanics, And Composition

BUXTEHUDE TO BACH:THE INFLUENCE OF DIETRICH BUXTEHUDE ON JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH IN

ORGAN PERFORMANCE, MECHANICS, AND COMPOSITION

Emily MeixnerMUS 303 --Music History I

December 3, 2010

From approximately 1650 to approximately 1750, organ music experienced a golden age, a

time when Baroque composers devoted a great deal of time and energy to the organ in composition,

structure, and performance. The main reason for this flourishing was the conclusion of the Thirty

Years War, which meant that funds which had once been depleted for the expenses of war were

once again directed towards the arts. Although the Lutheran Reform had prohibited many of the

arts, it encouraged church music, especially the choir and the organ, as a means of expressing

devotion and instructing the faithful in doctrine. For this reason, the Lutheran Church experienced a

plethora of German Lutheran composers; men such as Johann Pachelbel, Georg Böhm, Johann

Christoph Bach (a first cousin of Johann Sebastian Bach’s father) and Dietrich Buxtehude. Hence,

the arrival of Johann Sebastian on the scene in 1685 was like a musical seed planted in fertile soil

that had long been prepared with the techniques and compositions of devoted musicians, men who

helped to cultivate the talent and industry of this aspiring genius, a man whose influence in the

musical world has yet to be surpassed. Among these devoted artists was the famed organist and

composer of Bach’s time, Dietrich Buxtehude. Buxtehude, one of the best known Lutheran

composers of the late seventeenth century, served as the organist at St. Mary’s Church in Lübeck ,

one of the most prestigious musical positions in northern Germany, and was renowned for his

virtuosic playing and his compositions. Buxtehude was a familiar figure in Bach’s life from

boyhood through his compositions and through the acquaintances he made as a student in

Lüneburg. At the age of twenty, Bach also traveled 280 miles to visit Buxtehude in Lübeck, where

the young man prolonged his visit by several months to further learn and experience the skills of

this master of the organ. Exactly what occurred in Lübeck during Bach’s stay is unknown, but it can

be surmised that Buxtehude had a tremendous impact on Bach, evidenced first of all by the

prolonged visit and by the styles he adopted in his performances and his compositions. In this paper,

it is my intention to explore Bach’s early life as the foundation for Buxtehude, and the influence

that Buxtehude had over Bach in his technique and in his composing of organ music.

Life In Eisenach: The Foundation For Buxtehude’s Influence

Johann Sebastian Bach was born on March 21, 1685, the eighth and final child of a family

where most of its patriarchs made their livelihood through music. In Bach’s day, there were three

ways that a German musician could earn a living: (1) as the servant of a noble patron as the court or

chamber musician; (2) in the service of a town council as town piper; (3) in the service of a

municipal or ecclesiastical authority as church organist, music director, or cantor - which included

the teaching of music in a school. Sebastian Bach’s father, Ambrosius Bach was involved somewhat

in each of these musical professions, but his official title was as the Hausmann or the town piper of

a small town by the name of Eisenach located in central Germany. Ambrosius’ duties included

performing twice daily at the town hall with a band of five, and performing at worship services

before and after the sermon and Afternoon Vespers. He also would have been expected to play at

civic events and private occasions such as weddings and funerals. The house of a town-piper was

the central establishment of professional music making, filled with musicians, apprentices,

instruments, and music, involving the entire household and nearly all who lived under their roof.

The musical activities of the Bach family would have varied from teaching, practicing, and

performing to collecting and copying music and repairing and maintaining instruments. Bach would

have been no exception to this manner of life. It is certain that Sebastian received instruction in

several instruments from Ambrosius and his sons. This was merely a part of Bach’s broad musical

education.

While Bach’s musical life originated in the home, it was also nourished by outside sources,

where his family was also integrally involved. In Eisenach, the four institutions around which the

musical culture of the city revolved - namely, the church of St. George, the town hall, St. George’s

Latin School, and the court - were all situated “within a diameter of no more than an eighth of a

mile” of each other. All of these institutions played a key role in Bach’s life during his formative

years as well as in his later career. The town hall served as the location for official and public music

events; the ducal castle with its court capelle or orchestra (of which Ambrosius Bach was a

member) was the center of aristocratic musical patronage; St. George’s Latin School served as the

center of musical education with its chorus musicus or student choir; St. George’s Church with its

organ and choir loft, served in turn as the house of sacred music. The organist who served St.

George’s Church was a cousin of Ambrosius by the name of Johann Christoph Bach, “a profound

composer” in Bach’s own words. This connection would have given Bach presumably numerous

opportunities to explore the intricate mechanical inner workings of the organ, since the organ at St.

George’s was in constant need of repair. He would also have been given the chance to experience

the music that Christoph Bach composed.

Through the court, Sebastian observed the music and person of Johannn Pachelbel, who

came to Eisenach in 1677 to serve the court capelle before continuing on to Erfurt to become

organist of the Predigerkirche. Johann Pachelbel of Nuremberg(1653-1706), was a contemporary of

Buxtehude, and one of the most notable German organ composers of the Baroque period. However,

Buxtehude, being from northern Germany, had a completely different style compared to Pachelbel

who lived in central Germany. The organs in the north as opposed to the central part of the country

were also very different in their sound as well as in their build. These differences in compositional

style as well as in the tonal design of the organs would later entice Sebastian as a young man to

travel 280 miles to see them for himself. Although Pachelbel’s stay in Eisenach was brief, he forged

a lasting relationship with the Bach family, serving as organ teacher and mentor to Ambrosius

Bach’ oldest son Christoph in 1686. Thus, Pachelbel was another organist whose performance and

compositional style Sebastian Bach came into direct contact with at a young age. Sebastian Bach

would have more opportunities to learn and experience Pachelbel’s music when he moved to

Ohrdruf.

All of Ambrosius Bach’ sons also attended St. George’s Latin School in Eisenach. The Latin

School offered six classes, each lasting two years, moving successively up from level sexta (six) to

level prima (one). Scripture, Luther’s catechism, music, and Latin formed the basis of the

curriculum. The chorus musicus (school choir) rehearsed one hour four days a week. As the town

piper, Ambrosius Bach and his band would have accompanied both vocal soloists and the choir,

which consisted of students from the Latin school’s chorus musicus. Hence, Ambrosius Bach’ sons

would have regularly performed in vocal-instrumental performances with their father and their

great-uncle, the organist Johann Christoph Bach.

Bach attributed the musical excellence of his sons to their exposure to good quality music at

a young age. The same could be applied to Bach’s own childhood. From his birth in 1685 to his

father’s death in 1695, he was steeped in a musical world of high quality art in a variety of facets,

leading to an immense versatility in Bach that would serve him well as his career progressed. This

musical world lay the foundations for his mastery of the art to which his family was so devoted.

II. Life In Ohrdruf

Bach’s life changed dramatically with the death of first his mother in 1694, then his father in

1695, upon which Sebastian and his brother Jacob were welcomed into the household of their oldest

brother, Johann Christoph Bach. Despite this dramatic turn of events, Bach was able to continue in

the musical tradition of his family under the guidance of Christoph Bach, who had recently been

appointed organist at St. Michael’s in Ohrdruf. It was under Christoph Bach’s direction that

Sebastian flourished as an exceptional keyboardist.

Christoph Bach was an ideal guardian and teacher for Bach, having been taught for three

years by the renowned organist and composer, Johann Pachelbel in the city of Erfurt. Christoph

Bach also worked in Erfurt briefly as an organist before he was called away to assist his uncle

Heinrich in his duties as organist of three churches in the city of Arnstadt. A year later he was

accepted as organist at St. Michael’s Church in Ohrdruf at the age of eighteen.

Through Christoph Bach, Bach was able to increase his technological knowledge of the

organ. St. Michael’s Church had two organs; the larger organ had only been built in 1675 and

expanded in 1688, but the instrument was still incomplete and suffered from serious defects, the

necessary repairs being delayed for years. “In sum, St. Michael’s instruments required considerable

attention by the organist to be kept in playing condition. That this should be the case precisely

during Bach’s Ohrdruf years was important, for the boy, who clearly had a knack for musical

instruments and their technology, was given an ideal opportunity to gain firsthand experience in

organ building.”

Bach was able to continue his schooling at the Ohrdruf Lyceum Illustre Gleichense, which

was then under the direction of cantor Elias Herda. The continuation of Bach’s education was only

possible through hospitia liberalia - financial aid provided by affluent families for gifted or needy

students, as Christoph Bach’s salary was quite modest for supporting a growing family. Music was

among the chief subjects of study. In addition, as a choral scholar Bach was required to sing in the

chorus musicus, which received steady income for its members mainly through Currende singing in

the streets three times a year. He also may have been paid as a vocal soloist, which he could have

contributed to the household expenses. Bach’s excellence as a student and his schooling under

Herda would serve him well later when he would be forced to complete his studies elsewhere.

While Bach pursued his education at the Lyceum, he also received instruction at home with

his brother. “The most decisive role in Sebastian’s musical upbringing must be assigned to his elder

brother, Christoph. Not only did he provide a home for his youngest brother, he also furthered

Sebastian’s professional musical development during the most formative years of his life.” It was

under Christoph’s schooling that Bach devoted himself to mastery of the keyboard. “Cousin Johann

Gottfried Walther presents in his 1732 Musicalisches Lexicon a more objective statement when he

writes that Sebastian ‘learned the first principia on the clavier from his eldest brother, Mr. Johann

Christoph Bach.’” This statement implies firstly that Bach gained a sound keyboard technique on

the standard keyboard instruments of the times-namely, harpsichord and organ, on which he was

able to apply both hands and feet. Secondly, it implies experience with the major keyboard genres

and styles, whether improvisatory (prelude, toccata) or strict (fugue, ricercare), free invention or

improvisation based on a given subject or chorale tune. Technique and knowledge of genres and

styles would have come through composition as well as performance, where Bach would have been

required to copy out the exemplary works of various masters, thus teaching him the rules of

counterpoint and harmony, melody, voice leading, meter, and rhythm. Thirdly, it implies a

familiarity with the various approaches of individual composers. It is likely that Christoph would

have used the compositions he had studied under Pachelbel as instructional material for Sebastian.

In a notebook owned by another student of Pachelbel, we find an example of the chosen repertoire

for study: a series of preludes, fugues, fantasias, capriccios, dance suites, and choral elaborations,

most of which are by Pachelbel himself, but also including Johann Jacob Froberger, Johann Caspar

Kerll, Johann Krieger, Guillaume Gabriel Nivers, Christian Friedrich Witt, and others.

Hence, Bach would have been trained in a number of compositional styles. Pachelbel also

sold his students copies of his own music: three fugues, a toccata, a ciaccona, and a selection of

chorale elaborations. “The music represented a valuable commodity that Pachelbel was interested in

protecting.” This would explain a story related in Sebastian’s obituary, in which Bach secretly

attempted to copy a similar collection of Pachelbel’s music in his brother’s possession. Christoph

had denied him access to this collection before, and when he discovered the copies which Bach had

made, he quickly confiscated them. In spite of Bach’s loss, copying down of Pachelbel and the

works of other composers was an excellent teaching tool for the budding musician for memorizing

and emulating the masters. Furthermore, Bach still had access to a broad range of keyboard

literature from north, central, and south Germany as well as Italy and France, including composers

such as Dietrich Buxtehude, Johann Adam Reinken, Jean-Baptiste Lully, and Georg Bohm. It is

possible that Bach may have begun composing his own compositions at this time as well, albeit

since he would have had no desire to recommend or preserve these works, no autographed

manuscripts have survived.

While his musical foundation in Eisenach was quite broad, Bach’s musical education in

Ohrdruf concentrated specifically on his keyboard skills. Christoph Bach gave his younger brother a

thorough knowledge of keyboard literature that was stylistically diverse and technically challenging

while still musically attractive. The Lyceum would have only added to his education. In addition,

the constant need to maintain the St. Michael organ broadened Bach’s knowledge of organ

mechanics. Thus, when the time came for Bach to leave the confines of Ohrdruf, he was adequately

prepared for the new musical opportunities that awaited him there.

III. Life in Lüneburg

In the spring of 1700, Bach and several other boys were forced to leave the Lyceum due to a

lack of hospitia (financial aid). Bach had two choices at this point in his musical career: (1) he

could complete his education at another school and gain the academic qualifications necessary for a

cantor, or (2) he could enter the professional life as an apprentice to a musician. Bach chose the

former, and in March of 1700 he set out with his school mate Georg Erdmann to complete his

education at the highly reputed St. Michael’s in Lüneburg, a city over 200 miles north of Ohrdruf.

The Lyceum cantor Elias Herda had been a choral scholar at St. Michael’s and it is presumed that,

after hearing of openings for “matins singers,” he recommended Bach and Erdmann for positions as

choral scholars, which would supply them with the necessary funds to complete their schooling.

St. Michael’s was a grand complex including a church, a boarding school for the young

nobility, a Latin school for the burgher class, and the Collegium Academicum. Bach and Erdmann

were both accepted into the Matins choir - a select group of fifteen musically experienced choral

scholars - which was responsible for singing daily Matins. The Matins choir served as a more

advanced group of singers within the chorus musicus, a vocal-instrumental choir which performed

at the Saturday Vespers, the Sunday main services, the afternoon Vespers services on significant

Sundays and feast days, and the regular Currende singing on street corners, weddings, and funerals.

Bach was accepted as a soprano, but since his voice broke soon after his arrival, he was moved to

the bass section. The duties of the Matins Choir would have occupied Bach immensely, but his

talent as an instrumentalist - particularly as an organist - were certainly utilized by the chorus

musicus and the school’s official organist. St. Michael’s was renowned for its vast music collection,

“which ranked with that of St. Thomas’s in Leipzig as among the oldest, largest, and richest choir

libraries in Germany.” It is uncertain whether a fifteen-year-old choral scholar would have had

access to such a large collection, but one can assume that he would have had contact with at least a

small piece of it.

During his years in Lüneburg, Bach’s inclination towards keyboard music increased

immensely, prompting him to expand his knowledge and improve his skills. St. Michael’s offered

him the school harpsichords and the church organ, which would have been the largest instrument up

to this time upon which Bach had played, with a Oberwerk, Ruckpositiv, Brustwerk, and pedal. The

harpsichord had the advantage of not requiring additional assistance for Bach to play, whereas the

organ required a paid bellows operator. In addition, the St. Michael’s organ was in constant need of

repair, a frustrating prospect for the aspiring musician, albeit it gave him yet another opportunity to

learn more about the machinery and maintenance of the instrument. Another event which would

have sparked Bach’s curiosity in the working of the organ was the coming of the organ builder

Johann Balthasar Held to St. Michael’s in 1701. Held, who had previously worked with Buxtehude,

was responsible for renovating the school’s positive organ and enlarging it by one stop.

Beyond the walls of St. Michael’s, Lüneburg offered Bach several other opportunities to

extend his musical horizons. While in Eisenach he had been exposed mainly to German and Italian

repertoire, in Lüneburg he discovered the styles of northern Germany and France. Bach was given

the opportunity to hear music performed in the French style through the renowned the orchestra

kept by the Duke of Celle. The Duke’s mistress was the daughter of a French Huguenot refugee,

and to please her the Duke often brought the best French musicians and dancers to the court, where

his orchestra gained the reputation of being among the finest in Germany. Thomas de la Selle, the

dancing master of the Ritter-Academie (the school for the young nobility at St. Michael’s), served in

the ducal court capelle and could have given the students of St. Michael’s access to the restricted

ducal castle. Thus, Bach became familiar with the French musical style and performance technique.

There were five churches in Lüneburg and hence five organists with whom Bach would

have become acquainted with in order to access their instruments. Georg Böhm, the organist at St.

John’s (the largest church in Lüneburg), became a significant mentor for the choral scholar. Bach’s

study with Böhm began soon after his arrival at St. Michael’s.Although there are no records that he

received formal lessons with Böhm, Bach would have learned much from the organist’s experience.

The St. John’s organ was also in bad repair, but it was still a remarkable instrument. The

compositions which Bach studied under Böhm consisted predominantly of harpsichord suites,

especially French ones, but also included preludes, fugues, and chorale partitas. Hence, Böhm was

chiefly responsible for Bach’s instruction in the genre of stylized dance. He also gave Bach

compositional models for preludes, fugues, and chorale variations, a very useful gift for Bach who

began composing in these areas at this time.

Bach’s friendship with Böhm gave him the opportunity to travel to the nearby city of

Hamburg, a musical metropolis immersed in the repertory of north German organ music and home

to the distinguished organist of St. Catherine’s, Johann Adam Reinken. As dean of the Hamburg

musicians, a master of the strict style of composing, and a renowned virtuoso, Reinken would have

served as an imposing albeit fascinating figure to the aspiring musician. During his stay in

Lüneburg, Bach made several trips to Hamburg to hear the nearly eighty-year-old Reinken ply his

trade at St. Catherine’s Church, which possessed one of the largest and finest instruments of the

seventeenth century. The organ consisted of fifty-eight stops on four manuals and pedal, with a

beautiful variety of reeds and excellent thirty-two foot pedal stops. Bach had a tremendous

admiration for this instrument, and it played an important role in shaping his theoretical and

practical standards for organs.

Reinken influenced Bach in several aspects, but most importantly, he introduced Bach to

“the repertoire of north German organ literature, its principles, its relationship to a specific type of

instrument, and its manner of performance.” This repertoire included Reinken’s own work, which

contributed to Bach’s part writing skills, “the design of closed and rounded movements, the

differentiation between thematic expositions and related yet non-thematic episodes, and the

integrated use and expansion of sequential patterns.” This repertoire also included the works of

Dietrich Buxtehude. Reinken’s close friendship with the famous organist allowed Bach far more

familiarity with Buxtehude. It is possible, even, that Bach may have met him in Reinken’s home,

his trip to Lübeck in 1705 perhaps resulting from an invitation he was unable to accept until later.

IV. From Weimar to Arnstadt

Bach’s graduation from St. Michael’s School in 1702 at the age of seventeen marked the

beginning of Bach’s life as a professional musician. In July of that year, Bach applied for his first

organ position at St. Jacobi’s Church in the Thuringian town of Sangerhausen. Although he was

unanimously elected by the town council, he lost the position to a more experienced organist

through the intervention of the ruling duke. However, Bach’s election by the council proved that

they thought him exceptionably capable in his performance, improvisation, composition, and

knowledge of organ technology. He was also deemed experienced enough to supervise an assistant

organist and to direct the Church chorus musicus.

In January of 1703, Bach joined the capelle of Duke Johann Ernst of Saxe-Weimar where he

served as a lackey for six months. His position required his assistance as a violinist while also

involving nonmusical tasks and valet services. “The brief employment at the court in Weimar . . .

might be interpreted as a half year’s ‘ripening time,’a waiting period before certification as a

master.”

Meanwhile, in the city of Arnstadt, a new organ had recently been completed by Johann

Friedrich Wender at the rebuilt Church of St. Boniface also known as the New Church. Bach was

invited in July of 1703 to test this new instrument and “strike it for the first time,’” meaning he also

played it at the dedication recital, for which the eighteen-year-old was paid a sum worthy of a

professional court organist. This dedication recital must have made a splendid impression on the

town and church authorities, for on August 9th, 1703, Bach was appointed the organist at the New

Church in Arnstadt. Bach’s successful audition but failed appointment as organist at St. Jacobi’s

followed by his successful appointment at St. Boniface’s testifies to his abilities at this time in his

life. The repertoire Bach performed at his Sangerhausen and Arnstadt appearances would have

displayed his professional command of organ performance, improvisation, and composition so as to

impress the audience and especially the jury. His skills were coupled with an extensive knowledge

of the mechanics of the instrument which went far beyond what was typical for an organist of his

age. Bach was certainly an exceptional musician for his age: an ambitious, independent young man

with a devotion to music and, with his new appointment as the organist of the New Church, a desire

to now place himself among alongside the masters of his art, men like Reinken, Böhm, and

Buxtehude.

Bach’s position at the New Church required that he play for four services each week: the

main service on Sunday at 8:00 a.m., the prayer service on Monday at 7:00 a.m., the vespers service

on Wednesday at 2:00 p.m., and the early service on Thursday at 7:00 a.m. His primary

responsibility was to play an appropriate chorale prelude introducing each hymn, to lead and

accompany the congregation in the singing of the hymns themselves, and to play preludes and

postludes at the beginning and end of the service as well as suitable music during Communion. He

received a handsome sum for this extraordinarily light work load, thus affording him plenty of time

for study, practicing, composing, and the overall advancement of his musical growth.

Bach had one of the finest instruments he had come across in his care. “For the first time in

his life, he had free reign over a fine instrument with no technical defects, a luxury most organists

of the time could only dream of.” The Wender organ consisted of twenty-one stops on two manuals

and pedal, the manuals extending over four octaves and the pedals over two, “and, apart from the

missing C-sharp, they did not feature an incomplete bottom octave.” The organ was tuned at

Andreas Werkmeister’s new “well-tempered” tuning system - very similar to the current equal

temperament, allowing the organist to perform in any key “without spoiling its distinctive

characteristics.” Hence, it could be said that Bach had in his possession one of the most up-to-date

instruments of the time, perfect for refining his skills and contriving his own musical ideas.

It would seem that Bach would have been quite content in Arnstadt with this beautiful

instrument, a decent salary, and a relatively easy workload. But Bach soon found that his situation

had a major drawback. The musical scene in Arnstadt was quite dull compared to the vibrant

musical atmosphere of Luneberg and Hamburg. Up to this point in his life, Bach had been fortunate

enough to have had in his vicinity some of the best musical virtuosos in the country with whom he

could study. But in Arnstadt, he was the most accomplished musician in the city. Thus, Bach was

forced to satisfy his longing to advance on his own initiative. He was able to accomplish this to a

certain degree through intensive self-study. But Bach desired the criticism and guidance of another

master. This coupled with his new salary made it an ideal time for Bach to fulfill his dream of

meeting the great organist, Dietrich Buxtehude.

Buxtehude: His Life in Lübeck

Dietrich Buxtehude is among the best-known Lutheran composers of the late seventeenth

century. He was born the son of a German organist employed in Denmark, but he moved to Lübeck

in 1668 to succeed Franz Tundor as organist at St. Mary’s Church. This was one of the most

prestigious and most well-paid positions in northern Germany. Buxtehude’s duties included playing

the morning and afternoon services on Sundays and feast days, where he provided improvised

preludes to chorale hymns and provided solo works probably as postludes to the services. He also

played for weddings and funerals, provided continuo for the ensemble music performed under his

direction, and was responsible for the routine maintenance of the St. Mary’s organs. St. Mary’s

Church possessed two organs: a large organ for full services and a smaller organ for devotional

services and funerals. Both instruments boasted three-manuals, the larger instrument consisting of

fifty-two stops and the smaller instrument of about forty. It is probable that Buxtehude had both

organs tuned to the well-tempered system “when the harmonic language of his organ compositions

began to exceed the limits of mean-tone.”

For Bach, Buxtehude symbolized a type of father figure. First of all, he prefigured the

independent composer. It would seem from Buxtehude’s responsibilities that his position was

typical of a church organist of his time, with two dependable instruments under his care. However,

Buxtehude was far more than an organist. He was able to exercise far more freedom then would

have been permitted in courtly service due to the bourgeois, liberal character of Lübeck (a free

imperial city). In addition to his official duties as organist, he was able to travel, take on pupils,

develop as a virtuoso, and play public organ recitals - where he performed his own compositions

and “set new standards of form, size, texture, and character.” He composed several of his own vocal

and instrumental works for special events and concerts, such as his famous Abendmusiken. an

annual series of evening concerts featured on five Sunday afternoons before Christmas. In sum,

Buxtehude exercised his office of church organist similar to that of a municipal capellmeister,

serving as a model for Bach when he became cantor at the St. Thomas School in Leipzig.

Secondly, Buxtehude exhibited an understanding of the Italian, German, and French styles

and a thorough knowledge of the old and new contrapuntal methods. Buxtehude had been

introduced to the French style since his youth through the musical trends of the Danish royal court.

He had learned theory from northern German organ masters such as Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck,

Heinrich Scheidemann (Reinken’s predecessor at St. Catherine’s), and Matthias Weckmann.

Weckmann was specifically responsible for Buxtehude’s knowledge of the music of the Italian

composer Frescobaldi and his German student, Froberger. These north German composers and their

contemporaries composed mostly chorale settings but they made a special contribution to the

praeludium as art music through the rich resources of the north German organ, particularly its pedal.

Buxtehude embellished this northern style with “southern virtuosity and contrapuntal art based on

thematic variation, which he had found in the toccatas, fantasias, and canzonas of Frescobaldi and

Froberger.” He was also familiar with the German theorist Christoph Bernhard’s treatise Tractatus

compositionis augmentatus on first species counterpoint (also known as equal or simple

counterpoint) and unequal or florid counterpoint, which he further divides into old style and modern

style. However, rather then penning theoretical treatises, Buxtehude let his musical compositions

demonstrate his proficiency in Italian, German, and French music and contrapuntal styles.

Finally, Buxtehude was an organ expert. As the organist of St. Mary’s, the maintenance of

both organs was one of his primary responsibilities. Buxtehude also maintained a close relationship

with the leading German organist and theorist, Andreas Werckmeister, and strongly advocated his

new system of temperament.

Bach already had a strong understanding of German, French, and Italian music, theory, and

organ mechanics prior to his visit. Nevertheless, Buxtehude still had much to offer him. Thus, in

1705, “‘he undertook a journey to Lübeck, indeed by foot, in order to listen to the famous Organist

of St. Mary’s Church there, Dietrich Buxtehude.’”

VI. Bach’s Visit

It is unknown what exactly occurred during Bach’s visit to Buxtehude. It is certain,

however, that while the young musician had received permission from his superiors for a four week

absence, he ended up extending his visit by nearly three months. When questioned as to the reason

for this delay, Bach responded, “to comprehend one thing or another about his art,” as recorded in

the Arnstadt consistory for February 21, 1706. Although Bach knew that his visit would be an

extraordinary experience, it is possible that even he did not realize how much Buxtehude would

exceed his expectations.

At the earliest, Bach probably arrived in Lübeck in mid-October and stayed until the

beginning of February at the latest. Bach timed his visit to Lübeck so that he could attend the

performances on December 2 and 3 of Buxtehude’s “extraordinary” Abendmusiken: two oratorios

Castrum doloris and Templum honoris. These were grand-scale events, with the former

commemorating the death of Emperor Leopold I, and the latter his successor, Joseph I. “The two

oratorios Buxtehude presented . . . exposed Bach to a vocal genre, style, and manner of performance

he had never heard before.” Buxtehude composed both works in the modern madrigal form,

featuring choruses, recitatives, and arias. Their performance included both organs, several choirs,

twenty-five violins playing in unison, trumpets, trombones, drums, French horns, and oboes. It is

possible that Bach not only attended but also participated in Buxtehude’s ensemble to help finance

his visit, offering his services as a keyboardist or violinist. With such an ambitious project,

Buxtehude would have taken advantage of every competent musician available.

Bach already possessed a basic knowledge of Buxtehude’s organ repertoire from his years in

Thuringia, Luneburg, and Hamburg. Regardless, Buxtehude still would have been an imposing

organist to the young musician in “his innovative approach to virtuosic and large scale works in the

stylus fantasticus, his development of a pedal technique as both a performing and compositional

device, and the extent and probably well-guarded distribution of his major organ works.” Bach

exploited this opportunity to add to his collection of Buxtehude’s work. Several years later he was

responsible for the preservation and transmission of his organ works through the efforts of Bach’s

relatives and friends. Bach also probably brought some of his own large-scale compositions, his

attempts to measure up to the organ masters, to show Buxtehude in the hope of receiving appraisal

and encouragement. “It thus seems plausible that Bach’s multi-sectional works in the direct

Buxtehude mold, with their bold but inhibited gestures - such as the Prelude and Fugue in E major,

BWV 566 - mostly anticipate or coincide with the Lübeck visit rather than postdate it.”

VII. Buxtehude’s Influence on Bach

Buxtehude influenced Bach in at least three ways in regards to the organ: his performance

technique, organ mechanics, and in the compositional style of Bach’s preludes and fugues for

organ.

Buxtehude’s effect on Bach in his performance technique can be demonstrated immediately

on his return to Arnstadt. It is recorded in the consistory that after his visit, Bach was reproved “‘for

having hitherto made many strange variationes in the choral, and mixed many foreign tones into it,

so that the Congregation has been confused by it.’” His accompaniment of the chorales had

suddenly become far more ornate, reminiscent of Buxtehude’s manner of accompaniment. The

organ master’s chorale preludes were so elaborate that the ministers of St. Mary’s decided in

December 1701 to hang boards in the Church with the hymn numbers for the congregation. Bach’s

harmonization of the hymn Herr Jesu Christ, dich zu uns wend in his organ chorale BWV 726

(composed around this time) serves as a good example of the showy style he had adopted. Instead

of drawing attention to the cantus firmus, Bach explores the chromatic possibilities of a four-part

setting of the chorale “like a Max Reger before his time.”

Two years after Bach’s visit, Buxtehude’s influence on Bach’s expertise in organ mechanics

is evidenced during his career as organist at St. Blasius in Mühlhausen. Bach had traded his job as

church organist in Arnstadt for the same position at one of the largest churches in the free imperial

city of Mühlhausen, the second largest city in Thuringia. The organ at St. Blasius’ consisted of

thirty stops on two manuals and pedal, but had a few small defects. The organ had undergone a

large-scale renovation less than twenty years prior to Bach’s arrival. Nevertheless, Bach convinced

the parish to undertake another major overhaul plus an expansion of the organ, drawing up the plans

for the instrument himself. These plans included the addition of a 32’ sub-bass to the pedal,

modifications to the 16’ Posaune, replacing one of the old stops with a 16’ Fagotto for use in

concerted music, and the addition of a Sesquialtera. Bach also may have suggested a change in

temperament, as he insisted that all of the retained stops be retuned. It may be that these specific

recommendations were influenced by his recent encounter with Buxtehude’s large organ, whose

Sesquialtera had been added in 1704.

The organist of St. Mary’s also had a strong impact on Bach in his organ compositions.

During his stay, Bach would have made several copies of Buxtehude’s music which he took back

with him, and is considered one of the three chief figures responsible for the preservation and

publication of Buxtehude’s music. Thus through copying and listening to Buxtehude’s music, Bach

became familiar with Buxtehude’s composing techniques. This is especially noteworthy in Bach’s

preludes and fugues when compared to Buxtehude’s praeludia. There are many characteristics and

styles found in a typical Buxtehude praeludium which are also found in Bach’s preludes and fugues.

VIII. Buxtehude’s Praeludia

Buxtehude’ s praeludia make up the core of his organ repertoire. The fundamental quality of

these organ works is the composer’s juxtaposition of free, improvisatory sections composed in

toccata style with structured, fugal sections. The importance he gives to the free sections or the

fugal sections varies greatly. Although no two of the praeludium are alike, Buxtehude uses many of

the same styles and characteristics within each piece. All of Buxtehude’s praeludia begin with a free

flourish in either the manuals or the pedal. The free sections are composed in an idiomatic,

irregular, and unpredictable keyboard style, following the stylus fantasticus. The stylus fantasticus

was a subset of the theatrical compositional style which made particularly use of dissonance and

improvisation. Bound only to the rules of harmony, its purpose is to show the virtuosity of the

musician through artful decoration, contrast, unexpected changes, and variations between free and

metered music through imitative counterpoint. Buxtehude demonstrates the unpredictability of the

stylus fantasticus in the free segments of his praeludia, as they are composed in a variety of textures

and styles. They vary from pedal points to virtuosic pedal lines, from rapid runs of sixteenth and

thirty-second scales and arpeggios to homophonic chordal progressions. The free flourish frequently

includes a pedal point, a common feature of Buxtehude’s praeludia, such as in the opening of the

Praeludium in G Minor BuxWV 150: (See Example 1: Praeludium in G Minor BuxWV 150, p.

1, mm. 1-4)

The free section then usually becomes more strict and metered, which, while not imitative,

serves to contrast with the virtuosic flourishes of the prior segment. Buxtehude then proceeds on to

a fugue. From this point on, the praeludium alternates back and forth between fugue subjects and

free or strict sections. The importance he gives to the free sections or the fugal sections varies

greatly, for no two of the praeludium are alike.

The praeludia usually contain one to three fugues, which employ a wide selection of styles

and contrapuntal tactics or lack thereof. These fugues contrast strongly with the free segments of the

praeludia because of their strong meter and their predominantly contrapuntal character. The fugue

subject as a general rule has a clearer melodic character and a livelier rhythm than the toccata

theme, and often includes repeated notes (see example 2 [Praeludium in D Major BuxWV 139,

mm. 21-23), rests (see example 3 [Praeludium in F Major BuxWV 145 mm. 41-44 ), and octave

leaps (see example 4 [Praeludium in D Minor BuxWV 140 mm. 19-22).

Sometimes Buxtehude will return to the first fugue subject later in the piece, but this time in

triple meter. For example, in the Praeludium in D Minor BuxWV 140, a similar version of the first

fugue subject appears later in the left hand when the meter switches to a triple meter at measure 64

(see Example 5 [Praeludium in D Minor BuxWV 140, mm. 64-68]). This also occurs in the

Praeludium in G Minor BuxWV 150 and in the Praeludium in A Minor BuxWV 153.

Often in Buxtehude’s praeludia when the composer hits on a particular musical idea or

harmony that he likes, he will repeat the idea several times for intensification. This may occur in an

ostinato bass or repeating bass line, such as in the Praeludium in C Major BuxWV 137 (see

Example 6 [mm. 75-83]:

These various kinds of repetition may also occur in the manuals. The Praeludium in F#

Minor BuxWV 146 is full of examples of Buxtehude repeating a particular harmonic, melodic, or

rhythmic idea for intensification. The beginning of the piece consists of a sequence of repeated

notes emphasizing the tonic and the leading tone (see Example 7, Praeludium in F# Minor

BuxWV 146, p. 1 mm. 1-3). There are also uses of repetition to drive the melody forward, such as

towards the end of the praeludium at measures 114-120 (see Example 8, Praeludium in F# Minor

BuxWV 146, p. 6, mm. 114-120) where there is a series of repeated chords above the melody in the

bass line.

The repeating of a musical idea or harmony occurs several times within the Praeludium in D

Major BuxWV 139. From the beginning of the piece, he uses the same intervallic arpeggiation in

the left hand for the first six measures, only changing the chord as the progression proceeds from I

to vi to IV to ii to a diminished vii6 and finally to I and thus ends the first sequence (see Example

9, Praeludium in D Major BuxWV 139, p. 1 mm. 1-7). In measures 70-86, he composes an

extensive descending sequence consisting of a melodic line and repeated chords which alternate

between the right and left hand (see Example 10, Praeludium in D Major BuxWV 139 mm. 70-

71.). A selection of Buxtehude’s praeludia, including copies of the full scores of each example

given above, has been included in Appendix II.

IX. The Influence of Buxtehude in Bach’s Preludes and Fugues

The typical fashion in which Bach’s preludes and fugues are organized is much more

predictable than that of Buxtehude. In Buxtehude’s organ music the number of free sections and

fugal segments varies. By contrast, Bach is more consistent, usually beginning with a prelude or a

toccata which is followed by a fugue. However, although the pieces differ structurally, Bach

employs many of the same styles and characteristics of Buxtehude’s praeludia. I have decided to

analyze four of Bach’s preludes and fugues to demonstrate the influence of Buxtehude as well as

other influences found in these works: the Prelude and Fugue in D Major BWV 532, the Prelude

and Fugue in G Minor BWV 535, the Prelude and Fugue in C Major BWV 545, and the Prelude and

Fugue in E Major 566. (A copy of the score for each Bach prelude and fugue examined within the

paper has been included in Appendix I).

Bach’s Prelude and Fugue in D Major BWV 532 opens with an ascending D major scale in

the pedal punctuated with chords in the manuals to emphasize the tonic. This melodic idea is

repeated for the first few measures until a pedal point comes in at measure five, at which point the

piece becomes less metered. Measures 12-14 harken especially to Buxtehude’s use of repetition to

heighten the intensity of a chord progression, as he repeats the fifth and the seventh of a major-

minor seventh chord in a series of 32nd notes for three measures before resolving in a F# major

chord in measure 15. Then with a rapid flourish of 32nd notes there is a return to D major. The

piece continues on at a strict meter, where Bach continues to use Buxtehude’s repetitive devices

rhythmically and harmonically. The prelude concludes in a free section with several flourishes in

the manuals. Thus, Bach also uses the stylus fantasticus found in Buxtehude’s praeludium in his

prelude’s fluctuation between free and strict meter.

This particular fugue has some notable Buxtehude qualities about it as well. Buxtehude’s

tendency to hold on to a certain harmony or melodic idea shows itself in the first part of the fugue

subject in which Bach repeats a melodic idea four times. He then pauses with an eighth rest and two

quarter rests, another quality of Buxtehude’s praeludia, then continues with the rest of the fugue

subject. However, while Bach does exhibit these characteristics of Buxtehude in his fugue, Bach

does not just replicate Buxtehude, he also puts his own distinctive mark in his preludes and fugues.

In the first exposition of Buxtehude’s fugues, Buxtehude is quick to state the fugue subject in all of

the voices. The remainder of the fugue is spent alternating the subject between the voices, adding

various decorations until he tires of the idea and either moves on to a new fugue subject or switches

to a free section. Bach’s fugues are composed in a decidedly different fashion. When Bach states

the fugue subject, he dwells on the fugue subject and explores its musical possibilities. Bach also

alternates between the exposition of the fugue subject and developmental episodes. This harkens not

to the tradition of Buxtehude but to the ritornello form of the Italian concerto, a modern invention of

Bach’s day.

The Italian concerto was an instrumental form in which a small ensemble or solo instrument

is contrasted with a large ensemble or orchestra. Giuseppe Torelli was the first to adapt the form for

the fast movement of the concerto from the A-B-A structure of a da capo aria. However, Antonio

Vivaldi was chief in developing the standard ritornello form as it is found in Bach’s preludes and

fugues. The concerto consisted of three movements: an opening fast movement in the tonic

followed by a slow movement in the same or closely related key, and ending with another fast

movement in the tonic. The fast movements were composed in the ritornello form. The ritornello

itself was a recurring musical idea, similar to a refrain, played at the beginning and repeated usually

in a varied form throughout the movement and at the end. This ritornello is alternated with episodes

which feature the smaller ensemble or solo instrument. These episodes serve to develop or vary the

elements from the ritornello and feature virtuosic idiomatic playing, scales, arpeggiations, and other

figuration.

The prelude from the Prelude and Fugue in G Minor BWV 535 demonstrates the Italian

style as well as the characteristic compositional style of Buxtehude. The opening theme in the

manuals harkens to the use of the solo violin in Vivaldi’s violin concertos. The melodic line ascends

and descends, decorated by flourishes and arpeggiations and brief strikes of the pedal until measure

10 where Bach lands on the tonic and repeats it over a moving pedal line which arrives at a pedal

point at measure 11. These flourishes in the manuals and lightly struck notes in the pedal followed

by a pedal point are characteristics of Buxtehude’s praeludium. The repeated arpeggiations of the g

minor chord at the opening of the piece are particularly similar to the beginning of the Praeludium

in D Major BuxWV 139. In measure 14 Bach begins a a long series of virtuosic runs in the manuals

which continue until measure 19 where the piece changes to a strict meter and Bach begins a long

series of arpeggiated fully diminished vii chords traveling down the scale. At measure 32 the

progression changes. The voices now move upwards, once more punctuated by the pedal only now

in the dominant, culminating in a diminished vii-i in the bass decorated accompanied by free

ascending thirty-second note runs in the dominant key in the manuals at measures 35-36. The

melody comes back down the scale at a slower pace and a stricter meter than it ascended, landing

once again on a vii chord (although this time fully diminished), but Bach delays the final cadence

until the end of measure 40 in a V#-I. The inclusion of these virtuosic runs in the manuals and the

changes between free and strict meter also evoke Buxtehude’s style.

The fugue reflects the form of the Italian concerto even more so than the prelude, while still

showing the influence of Buxtehude. The fugue subject contains repeated notes, rests, and repetition

for emphasis, all of which are found in his praeludium. A real answer comes in at measure five in

the minor key of the dominant, followed by an answer in the tonic at measure 11, followed by yet

another real answer in the minor dominant key at measure 17, completing the first exposition. Thus

begins the first episode which is marked by tonal instability, suggesting the minor dominant key but

returning to the tonic for the second exposition at measure 25, where the fugue subject is stated in

the alto line and the bass line drops out. There is another brief developmental episode, ending at

measure 32 where the fugue subject is given again in the key of v in the soprano line and the tenor

line also drops out. A two measure episode follows. The fourth exposition occurs at measure 39,

where the tenor voice comes back in with the fugue subject in the tonic. After a three measure

episode, the bass line also returns with the fugue subject, but this time on the mediant, and the

exposition ends with a cadence in the key of the relative major at measure 51. However, by the end

of the following episode at measure 54 the fugue has transitioned into the key of d minor. While the

alto gives the fugue subject, there is a descending line in the pedal and the bass drops out once

again. The next episode is also transitional as Bach uses a sequence to return to the fugue subject in

the tonic at measure 64 in the pedal. However, Bach does something surprising at measure 68 when

he introduces of a Neapolitan chord, followed by several measures of tonal instability during which

he hints at the dominant key. There is a virtuosic ascending pedal line at measure 70 followed by a

thirty-second note scale in the key of the Neapolitan, a V 4-2 (in the key of g minor), and several

flourishes in the manuals. The fugue concludes with a brief V7 chord followed by a pedal point

beneath a chromatic descent in the soprano finally cadencing in a picardy third.

Thus, while the prelude itself and the fugue subject strongly resemble a Buxtehude

praeludium, the fashion in which the fugue subject is developed is decidedly Italian in its alternation

between expositions (the fugue-version of a ritornello) and developmental episodes.

Bach’s Prelude and Fugue in C Major BWV 545 also exemplifies both elements of

Buxtehude and the Italian concerto. The prelude begins with a descending melodic arpeggiation in

the pedal, which is repeated in the left hand and punctuated with chords in the right hand. In the

third measure the bass arrives at a pedal point, a common feature of many of Buxtehude’s

praeludium. With the entrance of the first pedal point, the piece becomes more metered and Bach

states the musical idea of the prelude, which is developed for the remainder of the piece as it

alternates among the voices. The prelude ends in a virtuosic coda which is almost a repeat of the

beginning of the piece. This alteration between free - strict - free sections is also very similar to

Buxtehude’s style.

The fugue opens with the exposition, where the fugue subject is stated, followed by a real

answer in the dominant key, then stated again in the tonic in the pedal. The first exposition ends in

measure 21 and the first episode begins, where the bass hints at the subject but it is never completed

as the fugue modulates into the dominant, while the upper voices fluctuate in scale-like motions.

The fugue subject arrives on the dominant at measure 28 in the tenor line in the dominant key, in

the alto line at measure 34, and finally in the pedal at measure 45. The exposition doesn’t end until

measure 55 after the fugue subject is given in the key of vi, signaling another episode. This episode

is more tonally unstable than the first as Bach plays with several different keys and developmental

motifs. This goes on for several measures until the fugue returns to the exposition in the dominant at

measure 78 in the pedal. Then finally the fugue subject is given in the tonic at measure 79 in the

alto. The subject is answered in the subdominant and in the key of ii. There is one final

developmental episode from measure 92 to measure 99. The fugue closes with a final exposition,

firmly established in the tonic once again as the pedal gets the fugue subject then rests on a pedal

point in a four measure cadential six-four resolving into a perfect authentic cadence.

However, Bach does not always avoid intermingling the free and the fugal forms. Bach’s

Prelude and Fugue in E Major BWV 566 is particularly similar in its structure to the praeludia of

Buxtehude. (*Please note: The score included in Appendix I is in C Major, but it is the correct

score). The piece begins with four measures of sixteenth note scales and arpeggios until measure

five where the bass comes in as a pedal point and the voices settle in a chord progression. No sooner

has the piece reached this arrival, then Bach writes a virtuosic solo pedal line, which lasts until

measure 11. The remainder of the prelude consists of a decorated chord progression where the

melody alternates between the manuals and the pedal. The fugue then proceeds, imitative of

Buxtehude in its use of repeated notes in the opening of the subject. The fugue goes on for several

measures, switching back and forth between expositions (fugue version of ritornellos) and

developmental episodes. Then in measure 89, the fugue ends and Bach enters an improvisatory

segment of sixteenth note scales in the manuals ending with lightly struck chords. After a rapid

arpeggiation in the pedal, he then proceeds in measure 101 to another fugue, although this fugue

subject is much slower paced so as to contrast with the first fugue. The piece concludes in a free

section, commencing with a majestic pedal line which proceeds to rest on the pedal point of a

cadential six-four. The manuals then make a decorated scaler descent to the final cadence. Bach’s

preludes and fugues normally do not switch back and forth between free and fugal segments. This

may be the reason that this toccata and fugue is believed to have preceded or coincided with Bach’s

visit to Lübeck, as it seems like a special attempt to imitate Buxtehude’s manner of composing.

Even so, one can still see Bach’s application of the architectural principles of the Italian concerto

especially in the first fugue.

An examination of these Bach preludes and fugues demonstrates that Bach, although he

used many of the compositional devices of Buxtehude, he was very much his own composer. Bach

uses the compositional devices of Buxtehude such as virtuosic runs and pedal lines, repeated notes

or chords, octave leaps, and pedal points. However, instead of whimsically switching from free to

strict meter to fugue, he employs the principle of contrast from the stylus fantasticus through shifts

between free and strict meter in his preludes. The fugue receives its own separate form. In each

form, rather than stating several ideas in one piece, Bach dwells on one melodic idea, whether it is a

melodic line or a particular key or harmony. He proceeds to explore the full potential of this musical

idea for the remainder of the piece. He renders several different versions of the same idea, exploring

its musical possibilities through various figurations, harmonies, and sequences. In his fugues, this is

accomplished particularly through the ritornello form of the Italian concerto. Hence, Bach took the

northern German composer’s styles and ideas and placed them into a completely new structure: a

binary form.

X. Conclusion

Fifteen years after his visit with Dietrich Buxtehude, Bach auditioned for the organist

position at St. Jacobi Church in Hamburg. Reinken was present for the event, and afterwards is

recorded to have told him, “I thought this art was dead, but I see that in you it still lives.” This

remark could be applied to the influence Buxtehude had on Bach in his preludes and fugues. The

phrase “to live” does not imply repetition but growth and development, demanding change that

looks to the past as well as to the present. Buxtehude died two years after Bach visited him, but

thanks to Bach, much of Buxtehude’s organ music was preserved and distributed. However,

Buxtehude’s tradition also survives within Bach’s preludes and fugues. After his Lübeck

experience, Bach did not simply replicate Buxtehude’s works. On the contrary, he applied the

techniques of Buxtehude to the already extensive musical education he possessed. Bach not only

composed in the styles of Buxtehude, but he also revolutionized them, applying them to a whole

new structure. Thus, Buxtehude played a key role in the cultivation of what are now known as the

Bach preludes and fugues.

Bibliography

Bach, Johann Sebastian. Complete Preludes and Fugues for Organ. New York: Dover Publications,

Inc., 1985.

Bach, Johann Sebastian. Toccata und Fugue in C-Dur BWV 566a. International Musical Score

Library Project, 2010. PDF file. HYPERLINK

"http://imslp.info/files/imglnks/usimg/f/fc/IMSLP83965-PMLP171440-BWV_0566a.pdf"

http://imslp.info/files/imglnks/usimg/f/fc/IMSLP83965-PMLP171440-BWV_0566a.pdf. (Accessed

December 3, 2010).

Burkholder, J. Peter, Donald Jay Grout, and Claude V. Palisca. A History Of Western Music. 8th ed.

New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2010.

Buxtehude, Dietrich. Preludes for Organ BuxWV 136-153 (Without BuxWV 138, 147). International

Musical Score Library Project, 2006. PDF file. HYPERLINK

"http://216.129.110.22/files/imglnks/usimg/1/1e/IMSLP29682-PMLP06429-BuxWV136-154.pdf"

http://216.129.110.22/files/imglnks/usimg/1/1e/IMSLP29682-PMLP06429-BuxWV136-154.pdf.

(Accessed November 23, 2010).

Erickson, Raymond, ed. The Worlds of Johann Sebastian Bach. Amadeus Press, 2009.

Geck, Martin. Johann Sebastian Bach: Life and Work. Translated by John Hargraves. Houghton

Mifflin Harcourt, 2006.

Snyder, Kerala J. Dietrich Buxtehude: Organist In Lubeck. University Of Rochester Press, 1987.

Wilbur, Gregory. Glory And Honor: The Musical And Artistic Legacy Of Johann Sebastian Bach.

Cumberland House Publishing, Inc., 2005.

Wolff, Christoph. Johann Sebastian Bach: The Learned Musician. W.W. Norton & Company,

2000.

Gregory Wilbur, Glory and Honor: The Musical and Artistic Legacy of Johann Sebastian Bach (Tennessee:

Cumberland House Publishing, INc, 2005), 4.

Wilbur, 7.

Christoph Wolff, Johann Sebastian Bach: The Learned Musician (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2001), 23.

Wolff, 22.

Wolff, 23.

Martin Geck, Johann Sebastian Bach: Life and Work, trans. John Hargraves (Orlando: Harcourt, Inc., 2000), 37.

Wolff, 21.

Ibid.

Wolff, 28.

Wolff, 30.

Wolff, 24.

J. Peter Burkholder, Donald Jay Grout, Claude V. Palisca, A History Of Western Music, 8th ed. (New York: W. W.

Norton & Company, 2010), 404.

Wolff, 24.

Wolff, 26.

Wilbur, 11.

Wolff, 28.

Wolff, 50.

Wilbur, 13.

Geck, 39.

Wilbur, 15.

Wolff, 37.

Wolff, 37.

Wilbur, 16.

Wolff, 43.

Wolff, 44.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Wolff, 48.

Wolff, 44.

Wolff, 45.

Ibid.

Geck, 41.

Wolff, 46.

Geck, 44.

Raymond Erickson, ed., The Worlds of Johann Sebastian Bach (New York: Amadeus Press, 2009), 3.

Geck, 43.

Wolff, 41, 53.

Ibid.

Geck, 42.

Wolff, 55.

Ibid.

Erickson, 4.

Wolff, 59.

Wolff, 58.

Wolff, 59, 60.

Wolff, 60.

Wolff, 93.

Erickson, 87.

Ibid.

Wolff, 65.

Geck, 45.

Wolff, 61.

Wolff, 62.

Geck, 44.

Wolff, 63.

Erickson, 246.

Wolff, 63.

Wolff, 64.

Wolff 65.

Wolff, 64.

Geck, 46.

Wolff, 68.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Geck, 47.

Wolff, 69-70.

Geck, 48.

Wolff, 70.

Geck, 48.

Wolff, 72.

Wolff, 79.

Wolff, 82.

Wolff, 80.

Ibid.

Wolff, 81.

Burckholder, 403.

Burckholder, 404.

Snyder, 51.

Snyder, 97.

Ibid.

Snyder, 78.

Ibid.

Snyder, 84.

Wolff, 95.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Burckholder, 404.

Wolff, 95.

Snyder, 25.

Snyder, 23.

Snyder, 26.

Ibid.

Snyder, 246.

Snyder, 246.

Snyder, 212.

Wolff, 96.

Ibid.

Snyder, Kerala J., Dietrich Buxtehude: Organist in Lubeck (London: Collier Macmillan Publishers, 1987), 104.

Wolff, 96.

Ibid.

Wolff, 98.

Wolff, 96.

Geck, 54.

Wolff, 98.

Geck, 54.

Ibid.

Wolff, 98.

Snyder, 105.

Wolff, 97.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Snyder, 105.

Snyder, 98.

Geck, 51.

Wolff, 104.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Snyder, 105.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Snyder, 106.

Snyder, 239.

Ibid.

Snyder, 248.

Snyder, 212.

Geck, 473.

Snyder, 239.

See BuxWV 150 mm. 16-64, mm. 90-146, BuxWV 153 mm. 21-64, mm.67-104.

Burkholder, p. 398.

Burkholder, p. 399.

Burkholder, p. 423.

Burkholder, p. 424.

Wolff, p. 97.

Erickson, p. 245.

Ibid.

Emily Meixner, Music History I, Dec. 3, 2011

Emily Meixner, Music History I, Dec. 3, 2011