Bioethics - Introduction to moral philosophy II · 1. Moral judgements must be supported by good reasons and sound moral principles; 2. Moral arguments require the impartial consideration

Bioethics-IntroductiontomoralphilosophyII

Threeclasses:1. 15February-Thechallengeofculturalrelativism;2. 17/19February-fromvirtuetheory(chapter13)toreligiousethics(chapter

4)tothesocialcontract(chapter10);3. 22February-HistoryofethicsII:consequentialismanddeontology.

ReferencetoRachels,J.2003.TheElementsofMoralPhilosophy.4thedition.McGrawHillInternationalEditions,NewYork(1sted.1986).

DavideVecchi-CentrodeFilosofiadasCiênciasdaUniversidadedeLisboa(CFCUL),FaculdadedeCiênciasdaUniversidadedeLisboa-4.3.16

[email protected]

Inthelastclasswesawthatculturalrelativismdeniestheexistenceofsuper-culturalmoralstandardsofevaluationofcoursesofaction.Weanalysedoneofitsarguments,showingthat:1.Logicallyspeaking,amoralargumentmustpossessatleastonemoralpremise,otherwiseitderivesamoralconclusionfromfactualpremises,whichisafallacy;2.Morallyspeaking,culturalrelativistargumentsarenotsoundiftheyderiveanegativeontologicalclaim(i.e.,thenon-existenceofsuper-culturalmoralstandards)fromaclaimaboutwhatpeoplebelieve;3.Intheend,beneathculturalvariation,thereexisttrans-culturalorevenmoralculturaluniversals,i.e.,super-culturalmoralstandardsofevaluationofcoursesofaction,suchastheevaluationofacourseofactionintermsofitseffectsorintermsofuniversalmaximsofconduct.

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Summinguplastclass

Thechallengeofculturalrelativismcanthusberesisted.Indeed,Rachelsarguesthatallethicaltheoriesandculturessharea“minimumconception”ofmorality(chapter1):1.Moraljudgementsmustbesupportedbygoodreasonsandsoundmoralprinciples;2.Moralargumentsrequiretheimpartialconsiderationofeachmoralagent’sinterests.Rachelsmightberight,butthisisirrelevantwhenweconsiderthatthedeeperprobleminethicsisthatthemoralprinciplesatthebasisofdifferentethicaltheoriesclash.Whatethicaltheoryshouldwechoosethen?Andwhy?

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Summinguplastclass

TodayIshallbrieflyexposetherudimentsofthreeethicaltheories:religiousethics,virtuetheoryandcontractualism(i.e,socialcontracttheory).Ishallshow-moreorlessfollowingRachels’argument-thatthesethreetheoriesareeitherincoherentorsomehowincompleteandneedtobecomplementedbymoregeneralmoralprinciplessuchas,forinstance,thoseatthebasisofconsequentialism(e.g.,utilitarianism)ordeontology(e.g.,Kantianethics).Inthenextclassweshallgobacktoconsequentialismanddeontology,whichwehaveintroducedinclass1(slides5.1-5.4).

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Planforthisclass

Divinecommand’stheory(forananalysis,seesection4.2inRachels)Godhasgivenusaseriesofmoralrulesandstandards.Theserulesandstandardsareobjective.Whatisgood/rightandbad/wrongisdeterminedbyGod.Problem:iscourseofactionxrightbecauseGodcommandsitordoesGodcommanditbecausexisright?IfitisarguedthatacourseofactionxisrightbecauseGodcommandsit,thenGod’scommandsseemmorallyarbitrary.WhatifGodtoldustokillandlie?Killingandlyingwouldbecomegood/right.IfitisarguedthatGodcommandsacourseofactionxbecauseitisgood/right,thenweareacknowledgingthatthereisamoralstandardthatispriortoandindependentofGod’sjudgement.ItisbecauseofsuchimplicationsthatDivineCommandTheoryhasbeenlargelyabandoned. 5

1.1-Religiousethics

TheTheoryofNaturalLawElementsofthetheoryofNaturalLaw:1.Everythinginnaturehasapurpose.Natureisaarationalsystemwhereeverypartofit-everynaturalthingandobject-hasaspecificpurpose.Intheend,theultimatepurposeisanthropocentric.ThisviewhasitsrootsinAristotle(Rachelsp.54):

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1.2-Religiousethics

The difference is that Aristotle did not considerGod part of the picture(e.g.,hisethicsdoesnotmakeanyappealtoGod).ChrisjanityaddedGodthecreatoroftherajonalordertothispicture.

TheTheoryofNaturalLawElementsofthetheoryofNaturalLaw:2.Therearelawsofnaturegoverningnaturalphenomena:everynaturalobjectbehavesinaccordancetoitspurpose.Therearealsomorallawsthat,ultimately,derivefromthelawsofnaturethatGodcreated.Somemoralbehavioursarethusnaturalandpurposeful,otherunnaturalandwithoutpurpose.3.GodcreatedarationalorderandwearecreaturesofGod,sowecanunderstandthemoralnaturalorder.Thismeansthatthecorrectcourseofactioncanberationallyevaluated(ineffectmakingmoralityindependentofreligion).St.ThomasAquinasinfactsaid,“TodisparagethedictateofreasonisequivalenttocondemningthecommandofGod”(Rachelsp.57).Thisrendersthetheoryofnaturallawpartiallyconsistentwiththeminimumconceptionofmorality(e.g.,theappealtogoodreasonsandsoundprinciples). 7

1.3-Religiousethics

Arethereanydistinctivelyreligiouspositionsonmajormoralissues?AsRachelsargues,religiousethicsiseitherlogicallyincoherent(DivineCommandtheory,slide1.1)orparasiticonindependentmoralconsiderationsandprinciples(NaturalLawtheory,slides1.2and1.3).Thismightbeperceivedasamisinterpretationofactualreligiouspractice,whichisbasedontheteachingsoftheScripturesandthedictatesofreligiousinstitutions.However,Rachels(p.58)askswhetherthereareany“distinctivelyreligiouspositionsonmajormoralissues”?Considerabortion.Isthereadistinctivelyreligiouspositiononthisissue?1.Religiouspracticesdiffer(JewishvsoldChristiantraditionvscontemporaryCatholicposition);2.ItisdifficulttofindsupportforthepositionoftheCatholicChurchintheBible;3.Religiouspositionshistoricallychange; 8

1.4-Religiousethics

Arethereanydistinctivelyreligiouspositionsonmajormoralissues?3.Religiouspositionshistoricallychange:“PopePiusIXchallengedthecanonicaltraditionaboutthebeginningofensouledlifesetbyPopeGregoryXIVin1591.Hebelievedthatwhileitmaynotbeknownwhenensoulmentoccurs,therewasthepossibilitythatithappensatconception.Believingitwasmorallysafertofollowthisconclusion,hethoughtalllifeshouldbeprotectedfromthestartofconception.In1869heremovedthelabelsof‘animated’fetusand‘unanimated’fetusandconcludedthatabortionsatanypointofgestationwerepunishablebyexcommunication.”Fromhttps://embryo.asu.edu/pages/pope-pius-ix-1792-1878

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1.5-Religiousethics

Arethereanydistinctivelyreligiouspositionsonmajormoralissues?3.Religiouspositionshistoricallychange:“PopePiusIXchallengedthecanonicaltraditionaboutthebeginningofensouledlifesetbyPopeGregoryXIVin1591.Hebelievedthatwhileitmaynotbeknownwhenensoulmentoccurs,therewasthepossibilitythatithappensatconception.Believingitwasmorallysafertofollowthisconclusion,hethoughtalllifeshouldbeprotectedfromthestartofconception.In1869heremovedthelabelsof‘aminated’fetusand‘unanimated’fetusandconcludedthatabortionsatanypointofgestationwerepunishablebyexcommunication.”Fromhttps://embryo.asu.edu/pages/pope-pius-ix-1792-18784.ThisalsoshowsthattheoriginalrationaleofthepositionoftheCatholicChurchtodaywasmotivatedbya-religiousmoralstandards,thatis,theadoptionoftheprecautionaryprinciple(i.e.,inthelightofabsenceofscientificevidencethatacertainirreversibledamagemightoccur,assumetheworsecasescenario). 10

1.5-Religiousethics

Arethereanydistinctivelyreligiouspositionsonmajormoralissues?Considerthe“appealtonature”arguments.Basicallytheirpointisthatwhatisnaturalisgood.Godisbenevolentandcreatednature,sonatureisgood.EveryhumansharesanaturegivenbyGod.Everyhumanmustbehaveinaccordancetowhatourcommonnaturerequires.Somebehavioursarethusnaturalandpurposeful,otherunnaturalandwithoutpurpose.Isthemoralprinciplethatwhatisnaturalisgoodsound?

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1.6-Religiousethics

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1.Homosexualbehaviourcanbeobservedinnatureandalsointhehumanpopulajon(factualpremise);

2.Humanhomosexualbehaviouris,however,stajsjcallyuncommon(factualpremise);

3.Humanhomosexualbehaviourisnotreproducjvelyadvantageousandhencenotadapjve(factualpremise);

4.Thereisnogenejcbasisforhomosexualbehaviourbecauseitreducesfitness(factualpremise);

5.Whatisnotnaturalisbad(MORALpremise);

Hence,homosexualbehaviourisimmoral(MORALconclusion)RELIGIOUSETHICSRATIONALE:Humanhomosexualbehaviourisunnatural

becauseuncommon,contrarytofixedhumannatureandwithoutreproducWvepurpose.

MORALLY JUSTIFIED JUMP ?

1.7-Religiousethics

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1.Homosexualbehaviourcanbeobservedinthecaseofmanyanimals,includingbonobos,thespeciesphylogenejcallynearesttous(factualpremise);

2.Thereisagenejcbasisforhomosexualbehaviourbecauseitincreasesthefitnessofthesocialgroup(factualpremise);

3.Homosexualbehaviourisnatural(factualpremise);4.Whatisnaturalisgood(MORALpremise);

Hence,homosexualbehaviourisgoodandmoral(MORALconclusion)ALTERNATIVERATIONALE:Thereisnofixedhumannature,notallbehaviours

evolvebecauseofreproducWveadvantageandsexualreproducWonisnottheonlypurposeofsex.

MORALLY JUSTIFIED JUMP ?

1.8-Religiousethics

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1.Rapingbehaviourcanbeobservedinthecaseofmanyanimals(factualpremise);2.ThereisagenejcbasisforrapingbehaviourbecauseitincreasesDarwinian

fitness(factualpremise);3.Rapingbehaviourisnatural(factualpremise);4.Whatisnaturalisgood(MORALpremise);

Hence,rapingbehaviourisgoodandmoral(MORALconclusion)

(SeeThornhill,R.&Palmer.2000insecondaryliterature)

MORALLY JUSTIFIED JUMP ?

1.9-Religiousethics

Giventhat it ispossibletoconcoctavarietyofargumentswith incoherentand counterintuiWvemoral conclusions from the applicaWon of themoralprinciplethatwhatisnaturalisgood,theprincipleisnotsound.Intheend,thereisnotadisWncWvelyreligiousposiWononmajormoralissues.

Virtuetheoryis-withcontractualism,utilitarianismandKantianethics-oneofthefourmajoroptionsincurrentmoralphilosophy(Rachels2003,p.155).Aristotle“NicomacheanEthics”:centralethicalquestionconcernscharacter,i.e.,whatisavirtuousperson?Whattraitsofcharactermakeoneagoodperson?Virtuouslifeisinseparablefromthelifeofreason.Inthissense,virtueethicssharespartiallythefirstcommitmentwiththeminimumconceptionofmorality(i.e.,moraljudgementsmustbesupportedbygoodreasons).GoddoesnotplayaroleinAristotelianethics.Incontrastwiththeethicaltheoriestryingtoanswerthequestionofwhatmakesacourseofactiongood.

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2.1-Virtueethics

Whatisavirtue?Aristotle:atraitofcharactermanifestedinhabitualaction.Virtuesarenotmanifestedonanoccasionalbasis,butalways.Butevenvicesmightbetraitsofcharactermanifestedinhabitualaction.Sowhatdistinguishesvirtuefromvice?Wecanasaconsequencedefineavirtueasatraitofcharacter,manifestedinhabitualaction,thatitisgoodforapersontohave.Butthenthequestionofwhatmakesthevirtuegoodremainspending(slide1.5).

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2.2-Virtueethics

Whichcharactertraitsarevirtues?

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2.3-Virtueethics

Rachelsp.176

Whatdovirtuesconsistin?Aristotle:virtuesarethemeanbetweentwocharactertraits,excessanddeficiency.Inmediostatvirtus.Courageisbetweentheextremesofrecklessnessandcowardice.Generosityisbetweentheextremesofextravaganceandstinginess.Honestyisbetweentheextremesofnaivetyanddeception.Loyaltyisbetweengeneralisedbenevolenceandbetrayal.(Notethatloyaltytofriendsandfamilyseemstocontravenetherequirementofimpartialityoftheminimumconceptionofmorality,Rachelsp.186-7).

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2.4-Virtueethics

Whyarevirtuesgoodforapersontohave?

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2.5-Virtueethics

Aristotle:thereissomethinggeneralaboutthesevirtues:theyareneededtoliveasuccessfullife.Giventhekindsofsociallifeweliveashumans,thevirtuesareallqualijesneededtobesuccessfulinlife.Thevirtuouspersonwillfarebeperinlife.

Arevirtuesuniversal?Isasinglesetofvirtuesapplicabletoallpersonsinalllifecircumstances,inallsocietiesandallcultures?Shouldwespeakofthevirtuouspersonas“thegoodperson”?Aristotlewasmakingageneralclaimaboutthekindofsociallifeweliveashumans.Isthisclaimjustified?Ontheonehand,itmightbesaidthathewasmerelytalkingaboutthelifeofaphilosopherinclassicalAthens,averypeculiarkindoflife.Ontheother,Aristotlewasproposinganargumentagainstculturalrelativism:themajorvirtues(i.e.,courage,generosity,honesty,loyalty)willbeneededbyallpeopleatalltimesandthusarenotmeresocialconventionsorculturalvalues,butbasicfactsaboutourcommonhumancondition.

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2.6-Virtueethics

LimitsofvirtuetheoryHowdoesvirtuetheoryapproachthequestionofwhatmakesacourseofactiongoodandhowshouldwebehave?Moral(especiallybioethical)problemsareoftenaboutwhatweshoulddo:shouldIabort?ShouldIrelievemyillfatherfromsuffering?ShouldIprescribepubertyblockerstochildren?ShouldIbecomevegan?Etc.Theanswerofvirtuetheoryisthatthecorrectcourseofactionistheoneavirtuouspersonwouldchoose.Doesthishelp?Consideramoralconflictcase.

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2.7-Virtueethics

LimitsofvirtuetheoryConsiderthiscase:myfatherisextremelyillandhisconditionisgettingworsebytheday.Heisinextremepainandthedoctorssaythathecannotimprove.Heisalsosemi-consciousanditisalmostimpossibletocommunicatewithhim.However,inthepasthetoldmethatheharboursstrongfeelingsagainsteuthanasia.ShouldIrelievehimfromhispainandactcourageouslyorshouldIactloyallybyupholdinghisbeliefsagainsteuthanasia?Whatwouldavirtuouspersondoincasethevirtuesofcourageandloyaltyclash?AsRachels(2003,p.189)argues“Theadmonitiontoactvirtuouslydoesnot,byitself,offermuchhelp”incasesofconflict.

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2.8-Virtueethics

LimitsofvirtuetheoryWhatwouldavirtuouspersondoincasethevirtuesofcourageandloyaltyclash?AsRachels(2003,p.189)argues“Theadmonitiontoactvirtuouslydoesnot,byitself,offermuchhelp”incasesofconflict.Virtueethicsis,atbest,incomplete.Consequentialismanddeontologyoffermoralguidanceinthiscase.Consequentialism:relievingmyfatherfrompainwillhave,inthiscase,anetpositiveeffectonthemoralcommunity,thusactingcourageouslyisthemoralcourseofaction.Deontology:respectingtherationality,dignity,autonomyandfreedomtochooseofhumansisadutyanduniversalmaximofconduct,thusactingloyallytowardsmyfatheristhemoralcourseofaction.

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2.9-Virtueethics

Supposewestartourethicalanalysisfromastandpointthatisoppositetothatofreligiousethics.Moreprecisely:1.fromtheontologicalassumptionthatthereisnoGodanddivinesourceofmorality;2.andfromaparticularhypothesisabouthumannature:humansarenaturallyself-interestedandaltruismiswishfulthinking(i.e.,psychologicalegoism,cf.chapter5Rachels).WheredoesmoralitycomefromifthereisnoGodandifweareselfish?Fromthesocialcontractthatself-interestedhumanbeingssigninordertosolveapracticalproblem:avoidingthestateofnatureandliveapeacefulandcooperativeexistence.

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3.1-Thesocialcontract

Thestateofnatureisafictioninaway.Butitremainsanimportantanalyticaltool(Rachelsp.156-7).ThomasHobbes(Leviathan,1651)asksustothinkwhatitwouldbelikeiftherewerenosocialcontractandnosocialinstitutions(nogovernmentwithitslaws,policeandcourts).Hobbesnonethelessbasedhisfictiononhistoricalconsiderations:whatwouldhappenifaviralinfectionwithahighmortalityrateengendersapandemic?ThisthoughtexperimentleadsHobbestopostulatetheexistenceofastateofnature,asituationinwhichthereis:“….continualfear,anddangerofviolentdeath;andthelifeofman,solitary,poor,nasty,brutish,andshort”(Rachelsp.142).

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3.2-Thesocialcontract

TherationaleofHobbesargumentisthefollowing:1.Equalityofneed:allhumansneedthesameresourcestosurvive;2.Scarcityofresources:theresourcesarescarce;3.Essentialequalityofhumanpower:nohumanissuperiortoeveryoneelse;4.Limitedaltruism:wecannotcountonspontaneouscharityandgenerositybecausepeopleareessentiallyself-interested.Scarcityofresourcesandequalityofneedmeansthathumanswillbeincontinuouscompetitionfortheacquisitionofresources;butgiventhatweareessentiallyequalandthatnoonewilleverprevailinthecompetition,andgiventhatself-interestandlimitedaltruismcannotbeabasisforsocialcooperation,thenthestateofnatureisastateof“constantwar,ofonewithall”(Rachelsp.143).

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3.3-Thesocialcontract

Thesocialcontractisthustheinstrumenttoescapethestateofnature.Thesocialcontractisbasedon:1.rulesguaranteeingthathumanswillnotharmoneanother;2.rulesthatenforcecooperationandtherespectoftheiragreements.Hobbes’mainpointisthatonlyGovernmentanditssocialinstitutions(itssystemoflaws,itspolicingauthorityanditsjudiciary)canestablishandensurethatthesekindsofrulesarerespected.Itisonlywithinthecontextofthesocialcontractthatwecanbecomealtruists,cooperative,beneficentor,asRousseauputit“differentkindsofcreatures”(Rachelsp.144-5).

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3.4-Thesocialcontract

ThesocialcontractexplainstheroleoftheGovernmentandalsowhatmoralityconsistsin,namely,thesetofrules,governinghowpeoplearetotreatoneanother,thatrationalpeoplewillagreetoaccept,fortheirmutualbenefit,ontheconditionthatothersfollowthoserulesaswell(principleofreciprocity).Contractualismthusmakessenseofmoralbehaviourandconduct:1.WhatmoralrulesshouldIfollow?Thosethatarenecessaryforsocialliving;2.Whyarethesemoralrulesjustified?Becauseotherwisetherewouldbenopossiblecooperationwithotherhumans;3.Whyisitreasonabletofollowthesemoralrules?Becauseitistoourownadvantageand,afortiori,mutuallybeneficialtoallmembersofsociety;4.Doesmoralityhaveanobjectivebasis?No“special”factsbutobjectivebasis:agreementbetweenrationalpeopleformutualbenefit.

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3.5-Thesocialcontract

Hence,contractualismhasseveraladvantages.Italsopartiallysharesthecommitmentsoftheminimumconceptionofmorality:1.Moraljudgementsmustbesupportedbygoodreasons(thesocialcontractisanagreementbetweenrationalpeople)andsoundmoralprinciples(justifiedwithintheframeworkofthesocialcontract);Butconsidertheothercommitment:2.Moralargumentsrequiretheimpartialconsiderationofeachmoralagent’sinterests(Rachels-2003,pp.157-9-arguesthatcontractualismisflawedbecauseitdoesnotcomplywiththisprinciple).Hobbesstartedfromtheassumptionthatallhumansareequalintermsofneedandpower(slide3.3).Butweknowthat,historicallyspeaking,notallhumanshavebeenandareconsideredequalmoralagents.Thehistoryofhumanityisahistoryofdiscrimination.

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3.6-Thesocialcontract

Considerasituationinwhichagroupofmoralagentsisdiscriminatedorisnotevenconsideredasapartofthecontract,aspartofthemoralcommunity.Arethemembersofsuchgroupsallowedtobreaktherulesofthecontract?Oneansweristhatthiswouldbeallowedwhenreciprocityisviolated.ReciprocityinthissensemeansthatIacceptthemoralrulesofthesocialcontract(henceforthacceptinglimitationstomyfreedom)ontheconditionthatothersdothesame.Forinstance,wepunishcriminalsbecausetheyviolatethereciprocityrule.Anotheransweristhateventheviolationofreciprocityisinsufficientforcivildisobedience.

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3.7-Thesocialcontract

A-CivildisobedienceismoralWithintheframeworkofthesocialcontractracialsegregationruleshavebeenformulated.Thereisaninfringementoftheimpartialitycommitmentoftheminimumconceptionofmoralitybecausesomegroupsofpeoplearediscriminated.Thesepeopledonotenjoythesamebenefitsofthesocialcontractasothers.Thetermsofthesocialcontractarenotbeinghonouredbecausereciprocityisnotrespected.Hence,civildisobedienceandbreakingracialsegregationlawsisallowed.

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3.8-Thesocialcontract

B-CivildisobedienceisimmoralWithintheframeworkofthesocialcontractracialsegregationruleshavebeenformulated.Moralitymeanscomplyingwiththerulesofthesocialcontractindependentlyoftheirobjectionablenature.Legalisequivalenttomoral.Allmoralagents,eventhosewithlessrights,shouldthusobeyalllawsandcannotpickandchoose.Otherwisethesocialcontractwouldbedestroyedfromwithinandwewouldbebacktothestateofnature.Hence,civildisobedienceandbreakingracialsegregationlawsisneverallowed.

Thepossibilityofdiscriminationposesageneralproblemforcontractualism:whatisthebasisforthemoraljustificationoftherulesofthecontract?Forinstance,howcandiscriminationlegislationbemorallyjustified?Ifitisdonebyreferringtotheinternalstandardsofthesocialcontract,it’sequivalenttoculturalrelativism.Toarguethatwhatislegalismoralseemsanabomination.Legislationcanbeasarbitraryanddiscriminatoryasyouwishanditwillinevitablybejustified.Thus,theonlyalternativeisthatlegislationisjustifiedbyreferringtomoralstandardsthatareexternaltothecontract.Butifthisisthecase,thenthesocialcontractisanethicaltheorywithlimitationsbecauseitmakesreferencetomoregeneralmoralstandards.

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3.9-Thesocialcontract

Considerthisexample:privateeducationisaconsistentfeatureofmanynationaleducationalsystems.Someprivateeducationinstitutions(Eton,UK,establishedin1440;annualfeeover£40,000)areolderthantheUniversityofPorto(establishedin1836)and,moregenerally,predatetheStateeducationsystem.Supposethesocialcontractallowsprivateeducation.Supposealsothatgovernmentpossessesevidencethatprivateeducationcreatessocialfragmentationandclassinequality.Shouldgovernmentchangethetermsofthesocialcontractandbanishprivateeducation?Whatisthebasisforthemoraljustificationofthedecisiontheytake?Anyideas?

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3.10-Thesocialcontract

Primaryresources:

1.Rachels,J.2003.TheElementsofMoralPhilosophy.4thedition.McGrawHillInternationalEditions,NewYork(1sted.1986).Chapters4,11and13.

2.Rachels,J.2004.ElementosdeFilosofiaMoral,Gradiva,Lisboa.Capítulos4,11e13.

Secondaryresources

1.Fromhttps://embryo.asu.edu/pages/pope-pius-ix-1792-1878

2.Rachels,J.2003.TheElementsofMoralPhilosophy.4thedition.McGrawHillInternationalEditions,NewYork(1sted.1986).Chapters5.

3.Thornhill,R.&Palmer,C.T.2000.ANaturalHistoryofRape:BiologicalBasesofSexualCoercion.MITPressThornhill,R.&Palmer.2000.WhyMenRape?https://www.csus.edu/indiv/m/merlinos/thornhill.html

4.OnHobbesandthesocialcontractseeforinstance:https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hobbes-moral/#StaNatTheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophyisanexcellentresourcefordeepeningyourknowledgeandunderstandingofphilosophyandethics.

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