11/24/2015 1 Endocrine Pathophysiology • Pituitary gland disorders • Thyroid gland disorders • Adrenal gland disorders • Diabetes and metabolic syndrome Objectives: Endocrine organ hypo or hyperfunction: Primary: • Genetic defect in hormone synthesis or deficiency of component of hormone • Destruction of gland due to autoimmunity, infection, hemorrhage • Tumor (benign or malignant) • Absence of gland General Endocrine Pathophysiology:
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Endocrine Pathophysiology
• Pituitary gland disorders
• Thyroid gland disorders
• Adrenal gland disorders
• Diabetes and metabolic syndrome
Objectives:
Endocrine organ hypo or hyperfunction:
Primary:
• Genetic defect in hormone synthesis or deficiency of component of hormone
• Destruction of gland due to autoimmunity, infection, hemorrhage
• Tumor (benign or malignant)
• Absence of gland
General Endocrine Pathophysiology:
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Endocrine organ hypo or hyperfunction:
Secondary:
• Diseases that lead to endocrine dysfunction
• Paraneoplastic syndromes with tumors
Other Issues:
• Abnormalities in hormone transport, hormone binding and iatrogenic cause of endocrine dysfunction.
General Endocrine Pathophysiology:
Part 1:Pituitary Gland
Disorders
Hypopituitarism: condition in which there are
decreased secretions of pituitary hormones
• Could be a single hormone deficiency or multiple hormone deficiencies (panhypopituitarism) and had multiple endocrine gland effects.
• Etiologies: tumors (adenoma, malignant), lesions (infection, hemorrhage, infarction), genetics or issues with the hypothalamus.
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Hypopituitarism:
Manifestations:• Weakness, fatigue, loss of appetite• Impaired sexual functions (reduced LH: sex hormone
deficiencies, reduced FSH: causes infertility)• Cold intolerance (deficiency of TSH, leads to secondary
• Decreased birth length, reduced growth rate, short statue, increased obesity with immature facial features, delay in skeletal muscle maturation, smaller than normal sexual organs
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Hypopituitarism: Growth Hormone (GH) deficiencies
Treatment:
• GH replacement therapy (recombinant human growth hormone) as a daily injection for children and possibly continued into adulthood
Hypopituitarism: Growth Hormone (GH) deficiencies
GH Deficiencies in adults:
• GH can decline with aging
Adult manifestations: increased risk of cardiovascular disease, insulin resistance/metabolic syndrome and inflammation.
Hyperpituitarism: hypersecretion of pituitary
hormonesEtiologies:
• Adenoma (secreting hormones)
• Malignant tumors
Treatment:
• Remove the tumor and replace base hormones accordingly.
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Hyperpituitarism: Manifestations: (according to excess hormones)
• ACTH hypersecretion (presents similar to Cushing Syndrome, hyperpigmentation)
• TSH hypersecretion (presents similar to Grave’s Disease)
• Prolactin hypersecretion (galactorrhea) impotence in males, menstrual irregularities in females
Hyperpituitarism: Growth hormone hypersecretion in
children (before puberty)
• Gigantism
• Characterized by excessive skeletal growth, tall statue, large body.
Hyperthyroidism: increased blood levels of thyroxine
(T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).
Etiologies:
• Problems with hypothalamus and/or pituitary gland
• Tumors (adenomas, malignant)
• Grave’s Disease (autoimmune disorder)
• Toxic Goiter
TRH TSH T3/T4
Hypothalamus
Anterior Pituitary
Thyroid Gland
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Hyperthyroidism:Manifestations:• Increase in metabolic rate• Increase in heat production (flushed skin, excessive perspiration)• Cardiac: tachycardia• Weight loss• GI: increased motility, diarrhea, malabsorption• CNS: nervous excitability• Increased risk osteoporosis• Muscular tremor• Exophthalmos (protruding eyes from orbits)
Hyperthyroidism:Grave’s Disease: • Autoimmune disorder which causes hyperplasia of the
thyroid gland.
• Auto-antibodies bind to the TSH receptors and stimulate thyroid hormone secretion.
• The antibodies are different enough from normal TSH that they can’t be enzymatically degraded as easily.
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Hyperthyroidism:Toxic Goiter: • Grows from an existing simple or endemic goiter and
develops nodules that begin to secrete too much thyroid hormones.
• Age is a risk factor.
Hyperthyroidism:Thyroid Storm (thyroid crisis): high levels of thyroid hormones that lead to a dangerous, dramatic increase in metabolism.• Precipitated by stress, diabetic ketoacidosis,
manipulation of the thyroid gland during thyroidectomy.
• High body temperature (hyperpyrexia)• CNS: delirium, convulsions• Diarrhea, vomiting, dehydration, hypovolemia,
• May have to treat for hypothyroidism with hormones after treatments above.
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Part 3: Disorders of the Adrenal Gland
Hypersecretion of adrenal medulla hormones: epinephrine and norepinephrine
• Etiologies: adenoma (pheochromocytoma)
• Hypertension
• Hyperglycemia
• Nervousness, sweating
• Tachycardia
• Exhaustion
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Adrenal Cortical Insufficiency:Etiologies:
• Addison Disease
• Hypothalamus and/or pituitary problem
• Complications associated with withdrawal from corticosteroid medications as with asthma, MS exacerbation
Adrenal Cortical Insufficiency: Addison Disease
• Rare, usually due to autoimmunity, but infections, adrenal gland inflammation/hemorrhage, metastatic cancers, certain drugs.
• Characterized by decreased adrenal cortical hormones and hypersecretion of ACTH
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Adrenal Cortical Insufficiency: Addison Disease
Manifestations:• Increased loss of sodium, chloride and water and decreased
secretion of potassium (mineral corticoid deficiency/aldosterone) resulting in hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, dehydration, weakness and fatigue, orthostatic hypotension/decreased CO.
• Hyperpigmentation (elevated levels of ACTH) • Poor tolerance to stress (decrease in glucocorticoids) as well
as hypoglycemia, fatigue, weakness, fever, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, weight loss.
• Decrease in androgens (sparse axillary and pubic hair in women)
Adrenal Cortical Insufficiency: Addison Disease
Addisonian Crisis (acute adrenal crisis):
• Extreme loss of sodium and water could lead to cardiovascular collapse and shock
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Adrenal Cortical Insufficiency: Addison Disease
Treatment:
• Hormone replacement (for life) and higher dosing required during times of stress: hydrocortisone and Fludrocortisone (a mineralcorticoid if Addison’s)
• Diet and fluid and regular schedule for exercise
Cushing’s Disease (Syndrome): hypersecretion of
glucocorticoids (hypercortisolism)
Etiologies:
• Adenoma or malignant tumor
• Lung cancer (hypersecretion of ACTH)
• Hypothalamus and/or pituitary problem
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Cushing’s Syndrome:Manifestations:• Obesity, fat deposits associated with face (moon face), at
base of neck (buffalo hump) and in abdomen.• Muscle weakness, bone loss, bruising and striae of skin.• Retention of sodium and water, hypertension and
hypokalemia.• Hyperglycemia, increased risk of developing diabetes• Increased androgen secretion (hirsutism: facial hair as well
as mild acne, menstrual irregularities)• Increased risk of osteoporosis• Increases gastric acid secretion (ulceration and bleeding)
Cushing’s Syndrome:Treatment:
• Surgery, irradiation or drugs according to etiology.
• Prophylaxis treatment of pneumocystis jiroveci(carinii).
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Adrenal Virilism: androgen hypersecretion in females resulting in hirsutism, acne, deeper voice, menstrual irregularities.
Part 4: Diabetes and
Metabolic Syndrome
Diabetes mellitis (DM): group of metabolic disorders
characterized by hyperglycemia
Classification:
• Type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes (IDDM)
• Type II (non-insulin dependent) diabetes (NIDDM)
• Gestational Diabetes: develops during pregnancy
• Secondary diabetes due to diseases (Cushing Syndrome, acromegaly, pancreatitis)
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Diabetes mellitis (DM): Type I Diabetes
• Destruction of beta-pancreatic cells either due to an autoimmune reaction or idiopathic reason for the destruction due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors.
• Occurs more commonly in younger people, but can occur later because of the extreme variability in the rate of destruction of beta cells.
• Manifestations are due to absolute lack of insulin, hyperglycemia and breakdown of body fats and proteins. Cells cannot get the glucose they need.
Diabetes mellitis (DM): Type I Diabetes
Manifestations:• Polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia (due to
hyperglycemia and glycosuria)• Weight loss, weakness, fatigue• In untreated diabetes type 1: increased lipid
metabolism causes hyperlipidemia and excessive production of ketones. Bi-products of lipid metabolism can accumulate leading to ketoacidosis and potentially an acidotic coma.
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Diabetes mellitis (DM): Type I Diabetes
Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA): often precipitated by stress, trauma, infection, hormonal changes, medications• Metabolic acidosis that develops in untreated diabetes type 1
individuals due to accumulation of ketones.• Nausea and vomiting• Elevated blood glucose• Acetone breath odor• Confusion, stupor• Risk of ketoacidotic coma due to the combined effects of
ketoacidosis, dehydration and the toxic effects of ketones on the brain.
• Rapid respirations• Diffuse abdominal pain**Treat DKA with fluid/electrolyte replacement and insulin
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Diabetes mellitis (DM): Type II Diabetes
• Beta cells are able to secrete insulin initially, but the beta cell response may be diminished.
• Insulin resistance: inability of cells (particularly muscle, liver, fat) to take up and metabolize glucose because of a slower cycling of glucose carriers to the cell membrane surface and defective utilization of the glucose that is able to get into cells. This causes an increase in insulin secretion by beta cells and increased production of glucose by the liver.
• Occurs gradually and is often asymptomatic in the beginning
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Diabetes mellitis (DM): Type II Diabetes
• Type II much more common than type I• Much stronger genetic component than type I,
probably a combination of environmental factors and genetics
• Less prone to ketoacidosis than type I• Insulin resistance related to metabolic syndrome:
obesity (particular upper body, waist/hip ratio), high levels of plasma triglycerides, low levels of HDLs, hypertension, systemic inflammation, cardiovascular disease, abnormal vascular endothelium, abnormal thrombolysis
Diabetes mellitis (DM): Type II Diabetes
Hyperglycemic non-ketotic coma: (rare)
• Stress, infection, etc. in long established type II diabetes, can cause acute demand for insulin overwhelming beta cells, insulin output drops dramatically. Hyperglycemia rises rapidly producing a hyperosmolarity in blood, with heavy diuresis.
• Can lead to cerebral dehydration, coma.
Diabetes mellitis (DM):Chronic complications of diabetes: (both type 1 and II)• Glycated proteins form as plasma proteins (also
hemoglobin) and tissue proteins combine with glucose when there is hyperglycemia. Proteins then function abnormally.
• Microangiopathy: The walls of very small blood vessels become thick and weak and can bleed, leak protein and slow the flow of blood. This disease process of blood vessels can affect the eye, the skin and the kidneys in particular.
Diabetes mellitis (DM):Chronic complications of diabetes:Increased risk for hypertension and atherosclerosis:• Glucose deprivation causes the body to have increased
demand for lipid. Hyperlipidemia along with systemic hypertension results in early and severe atheroschlerosis with increased propensity for MI and stroke.
• Skin Ulcerations (particularly of the foot): reduction of blood flow to tissues/lower limbs. Minor wounds don’t heal easily, hypoxia, anaerobic organisms can produce gangrene.
Diabetes mellitis (DM):
Chronic complications of diabetes:
Increased risk for infections:• Soft tissue infections associated with extremities
• Urinary tract infections
• Osteomyelitis
• Dental caries and peridontal disease
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Diabetes mellitis (DM):Screening:• Person without risk factor, 45 yr, 3 yr interval retesting• Consider in younger age if:
• Obese• Family history of diabetes mellitis• High-risk ethnic populations ( black americans, hispanics,
native Americans)• Sedentary lifestyle• Delivering a >9lb baby or have had gestational diabetes• Polycystic ovarian syndrome• Have HTN or hyperlipidemia• Previous testing with impaired glucose tolerance or impaired
fasting glucose (IFG)
Diagnosis:• Glycolated hemoglobin test
• Blood tests (blood glucose tests)
• Urine tests
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Stage Fasting plasma glucose (FPG)
Casual (random) plasma glucose:blood drawn at any time
• Diet and Exercise (as weight is reduced, the insulin receptor numbers increase, decreasing insulin resistance).
• Drugs: Sulfonylureas (increase release of insulin from beta cells), biguanide(inhibit hepatic breakdown and release of glucose), alpha-glucosidase inhibitors (inhibit enzymes that break down carbohydrates in intestines), thiazolinediones (decrease insulin resistance)
• Insulin
Diabetes mellitis (DM):Problems with maintaining blood sugar with insulin therapy:
• Hypoglycemic coma: results from brain glucose deprivation. This can be caused by an accidental excessive insulin dose or not eating enough along with insulin doses.
• Somogyi effect: rebounding high blood sugar that is in response to low blood sugar. Insulin-induced posthypoglycemic episodes. Increase in catecholamines, glucagon, cortisol and GH increase blood sugar.
• Dawn phenomenon: abnormal rise in morning blood sugar due to a surge of bodily hormones (especially GH) secreted between 4:00 and 5:00 am while insulin is waning.