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Picture Big ISSUE 10 JUNE 2009 BRINGING CUTTING-EDGE SCIENCE INTO THE CLASSROOM FREE resource for teachers MUSIC, MIND AND MEDICINE Music and emotions Evolution of music Music and medicine Creativity and music Moved by music How music affects mind and body Alexandru/Shutterstock
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Big Picture: Music, Mind and Medicine

Nov 15, 2014

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Wellcome Trust

Most of us hear some form of music each day. It is a popular leisure activity and accompanies many of the most significant points of our lives.Even so, music remains one of life's great mysteries. How can it have such a powerful impact? And what exactly is music? FInd out in this free educational publication. 'Big Picture' is a free post-16 resource for teachers that explores issues around biology and medicine.
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Page 1: Big Picture: Music, Mind and Medicine

PictureBig

ISSUE 10 JUNE 2009

BRINGING CUTTING-EDGE SCIENCE INTO THE CLASSROOM

FREEresource for

teachers

MUSIC, MIND AND MEDICINE

■ Music and emotions

■ Evolution of music

■ Music and medicine

■ Creativity and music

Moved by musicHow music affects mind and body

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Page 2: Big Picture: Music, Mind and Medicine

2 Big Picture 10: Music, Mind and Medicine

PictureBig

Big Picture on music

It is hard to imagine a world without music. Most of us

hear some form of music every day. It is a popular leisure

activity and it accompanies many of the most significant

points of our lives: our infancy, our marriages, our

funerals. It is a powerful trigger of emotional memories.

Often, we can tell the story of our lives in songs

and music.

Even so, music remains one of life’s great mysteries.

How can it have such a powerful impact on us? What

exactly is it for? When in human history did it appear

and why? Do other animals experience music?

And what exactly is music anyway?

Harmony in my head

Magical mystery tour

Music always involves combinations of pitch, timbre, rhythm, loudness, tempo, melody and harmony.

These elements can be combined to create a huge diversity of music – from African drumming to

Johann Sebastian Bach, Inuit throat singing to Razorlight. It’s a beautiful noise

PITCH:

How high or low a note is. Linked to the frequency of a sound wave

TONE:

A regular sound of distinct pitch; musical systems are based on a discrete set of tones

OCTAVE:

Musical interval of eight full tones (e.g. from C to the C above it), over which pitch frequency halves or doubles

TIMBRE:

Why the same

note on a

trombone

sounds different

to one played

on a violin

RHYTHM:The organisation of musical stresses over time

HARMONY:

Combining notes of different pitches to create new sounds

LOUDNESS:The volume of sound. Dependent on the amplitude of a sound wave

TEMPO:

The speed at which a piece of music is played

MELODY:A pleasing arrangement of notes

In the inner ear, the cochlea converts

sound waves into the language of the

brain: nerve impulses. Within the organ

of Corti, tiny hair cells in the basilar

membrane detect sound vibrations.

Inner hair cells convert mechanical

stimulation to an electrical signal.

Their deformation opens ion channels,

triggering a series of cellular events that

ultimately generates an action potential

in the auditory nerve.

Because of the structure of the

basilar membrane, different parts of the

cochlea respond to sounds of different

pitch. At one end the membrane

is narrow and stiff and vibrates in

response to high pitches. The other

end is wider and more flexible,

responding to deeper sounds.

But information doesn’t just flow one

way. The brain can send signals that

sharpen up responses of hair cells, so

we can concentrate on specific aspects

of sound in complex environments. www.wellcome.ac.uk/bigpicture/music

SOUND AND VISION

The sound journey from ear to brain is

summarised at Big Picture Online.

See how the cochlea is beautifully

structured to detect sound and

transmit information to the brain.

The website also includes an

audio library providing auditory

material to complement

the articles in this issue.ON THE WEB

systems are based on a discrete set of tones

to the C above it), over which pitch frequencyhalves or doubles

oDta

Page 3: Big Picture: Music, Mind and Medicine

JUNE 2009 3

How are music and language related?

Music and language have

much in common. Both

depend upon the brain’s

perception of structured

sound input. Links between

the two were noted by

the ancient Greeks, and

Charles Darwin speculated

about how they might be

related. During the 20th

century, attention focused

mainly on their differences,

with the idea that the brain

had specific ‘modules’ for

decoding music, distinct

from those that handled

language.

In reality, the lines

between language and

music are not always clear

cut. ‘Talking drums’, used

to send messages in parts

of Africa, and the

whistling languages

of Africa, Asia and

South America

resemble music but

convey information

as ‘normal’

languages do. Baby

talk (the cooing

intonation of

‘motherese’

or ‘parentese’)

also blurs the boundaries.

Similarly, the idea that

there are separate music-

processing areas in the

brain has been challenged.

Localised brain damage

can affect specific aspects

of music perception, but

often disrupts both music

and language. An emerging

idea is that there are brain

networks and areas for

music that overlap with, but

are not identical to, those

used in language.

So which came first? Did

early humans chat or sing

round the campfire? One

possibility is that rhythm

and early motherese-like

communication provided

a common foundation

for both language and

music. The two diverged

as language became

the principal tool of

communication,

with well-defined

structures and rules.

Music set off in a

different direction. Yet

their common ancestry

lives on in the shared

processing pathways

in our brains.

Always on my mindOur brains recognise octaves as special.

‘Happy Birthday’ is a well-known tune, written surprisingly recently (technically,

it is still in copyright). As with all songs, if its notes are all raised by an octave

(or multiple octaves) it remains instantly recognisable. A much smaller shift in

frequency, if it does not match an octave, has a much more dramatic impact on

melody and makes the tune harder to spot.

Remarkably, our brains have an innate ability to spot the fact that notes an

octave apart are the same. This capacity is even present in unborn infants, whose

heart rate changes when they experience novel sounds. An octave shift, though,

has a relatively small effect on heart rate.

Perhaps even more remarkably, other primates share this ability. Rhesus

monkeys trained to distinguish ‘same’ from ‘different’ can spot the similarity

between different versions of ‘Happy Birthday’ (and other simple songs) but only

when they are played an octave apart.

Early music was passed on from

person to person. Oral tradition

remains the norm in many regions,

including most of Africa. Generally,

though, some form of musical

notation is used.

The ancient Greeks wrote

melodies as lines of letters. But it

wasn’t until eighth-century Church

music that changes in pitches

were shown: diagonal lines

indicated rises or falls in the tune.

More precise changes in pitch

were written in the tenth century,

when a single line represented a

fixed tone and pitch varied above

or below this by set distances.

By the 12th century, staves had

four lines with pitches on alternate

spaces and lines. We now have

five.

In Japanese music there is no

consensus notation because the

music is so diverse. The notation

for the Shakuhachi bamboo flutes

is pictorial: a symbol for each note

with dots and lines for lengths and

intonation.

Talking loud and clear

An African ‘talking drum’.

EXPECTANCY, CONTEMPLATION

VISUAL PERCEPTION

PERSONALITY AND PREFERENCE

SENSORY ANALYSIS

EMOTIONS

(goosebumps etc.)

AUDITORY PROCESSING

MEMORY

with past events

Abacab

Brain imaging shows that music

perception involves a wide range of brain

regions. Many are specialised: music

leads to increased activity in a network

including the evolutionarily ancient

emotional areas of the brain.

with brain damage, often from

people with damage to a particular region

on the right side of the brain can no

longer tell whether a pitch changes to

a higher or lower note. As a result they

cannot perceive a tune’s ups and downs

over time – its melodic contour.

There is overlap between music

perception and other brain functions,

particularly music and language. For

events in both music and language are

detected by similar brain regions.

The brain has a complex interconnected set of pathways for processing music.

Wired for sound

Photo

dis

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A Tibetan musical score from a Buddhist monastic ritual, circa late 18th–19th century.

Page 4: Big Picture: Music, Mind and Medicine

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4 Big Picture 10: Music, Mind and Medicine

Emotions are associated with activity

in a network of brain structures. Music

is very good at stimulating activity in

these areas – a sign of the tremendous

emotional impact of music.

Interestingly, emotional reactions

seem to be an innate aspect of music

perception. Dissonance, combinations

of notes that clash with one another, is

distressing. The phenomenon is often

change from dissonant to consonant

tones is appreciated as a resolution of

tension in diverse cultures from Hindu

to Western.

The ‘Devil’s interval’ – two notes three

tones apart (e.g. a C and an F sharp),

played simultaneously or one after another

– automatically induces a feeling of dread.

In medieval times it was considered evil

and banned. More recently, it has been

a staple of horror films and heavy metal

(though it also appears in West Side Story

and the theme to The Simpsons).

memories. In particular, one region of the

music and ‘autobiographical’ memories

(those most relevant to us as individuals).

Listening to a song heard on a first date

can thus call up powerful recollections of

Interestingly, this is one of the last

areas to be lost in Alzheimer’s disease,

suggesting that music could help people

to retrieve personal memories even at late

stages of disease.

Heartbeat Music can trigger powerful physiological responses.

Music can elicit a remarkable range of

emotions, from elation to the deepest

sorrow. As well as provoking a mental

response, it also has characteristic

effects on the body.

Music can give us the ‘thrills’, ‘chills’ and

‘shivers’. Heart rate and skin conductance

may change. The hairs on the back of our

neck (and elsewhere) really do stand up.

These effects arise from the action

of hormones, triggered by signals from

structures such as the hypothalamus.

Stirring, martial music may stimulate the

release of adrenaline; dance music can

trigger a burst of endorphins, associated

Music activates areas of the brain such

as the insula, which seems to maintain

an internal representation of how the

body ‘feels’. Music thus conveys a

sensation that affects our whole body.

Might music even affect our immune

function? The nervous, endocrine and

immune systems are more connected

than once thought, so this is

affect levels of the stress hormone

cortisol, which can influence the

immune system.

My generationA 2003 study found that sopranos tended

to live longer than altos (and basses longer

than tenors). Possibly, higher levels

androgens in men) are responsible for both

voice characteristics and longevity.

The power of music is extraordinary. It can inspire, excite and influence our mood

profoundly. It can send chills down our spines and raise the hairs on the back of

our necks.

How can something as simple as a coordinated set of noises have such

dramatic impacts on our mind and body?

More controversially, perhaps, music is often used deliberately to modify

human behaviour – building on a long history of manipulation by music.

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High-flying adored: Lesley Garrett, soprano.

Second that emotionEmotion is fundamental to the musical experience.

All the worst tunes: the ‘Devil's interval’ inspires dread.

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Big in Japan: Luciano Pavarotti, bass.

Page 5: Big Picture: Music, Mind and Medicine

People from diverse cultures

agree that certain pairs of notes

are harmonious (consonant) or

disharmonious (dissonant). The

discord comes from interfering

vibrations of the ear’s basilar

membrane, which lead to

conflicting patterns of activity in

the auditory nerve.

But most musical preferences

are learned. They change over

history – sounds dissonant to

medieval audiences might go

unnoticed today. And they vary

between cultures. Melodies that

inspire sadness in one country

may leave people from another

unmoved.

What accounts for individual

taste in music? Some research

has found a link between music

taste and particular personality

traits (see below). We will also

naturally be influenced by the

music we experience as we grow

up – both the prevailing musical

culture and the specific music our

families listen to. Even factors such

as socioeconomic status may be

significant (jazz tends to be more

popular among the well-off).

Our tastes will tend to change

over time. With experience, we

may begin to enjoy more complex

musical pieces. But we also lose

our initial range of hearing.

Changes to the brain can

radically affect musical tastes.

Classical music lovers with

dementia, for example, have

been known suddenly to acquire

a taste for pop music.

So what about musical

quality? A century ago the

question would not have

been thought worth asking:

Western classical music was

seen as innately superior. Colonial

occupations imposed attitudes

and culture as well as armies.

Even today, classical music retains

an association with social and

cultural elites.

Even so, what is seen

as ‘quality’ shifts over time;

composers come in and out

of fashion. Stravinsky’s ‘Rite of

Spring’ sparked a riot when first

performed in 1913 yet is now

widely recognised as a classic.

Moreover, there is a greater

willingness to accept

musical plurality – that

no one musical form is

‘better’ than another.

Buy buy babyInevitably, business has also wised up to the

power of music. ‘Audio architects’ develop

soundtracks for shops that are as much

part of the brand as their visual identity.

Sports events have abandoned

marching bands in favour of

booming popular music.

Music affects how fast

people drive and how

they exercise in the gym.

Music volume affects

beer consumption. Style of

music can even affect wine

purchases: when German music

was played in an off-licence,

shoppers were more likely to choose

German wines, while French music

led them to prefer French tipples.

Like a rolling stone

A global study of 36 000 people found a range

of associations between personality traits and

musical tastes – some of them quite surprising.

Opera lovers tend to have high self-esteem

and are creative and gentle; country and western

devotees are typically hard-working and outgoing;

heavy metal fans tend to have low self-esteem

and are not so hard-working, but are gentle.

Conversely, song choice can provide clues

to personality. In one study, strangers were

asked to judge what people were like (extrovert,

adventurous, melancholic, etc.) based on a CD of their favourite

music or other clues. The assessments based on the CD were

significantly better matches than those drawn from looks, clothes

or taste in films.

Good vibrationsWhat is quality music?

Samuel Barber’s ‘Adagio for Strings’ has graced David

Lynch’s The Elephant Man, Oliver Stone’s Platoon and Jean-

Pierre Jeunet’s Amélie. In 2004, listeners to Radio 4’s Today

programme voted it the saddest classical piece ever written.

A dance version by William Orbit (remixed by Ferry Corsten)

was a top hit in 1999.

Soundtracks are vital to a film experience, tugging at the

heartstrings, stirring the soul or scaring the living daylights out

of us (think Jaws, Psycho). Film score composers are emulating

classical composers, who used music to elicit an emotional

response, from sombre requiems to Beethoven’s uplifting

‘Ode to Joy’.

Interestingly, even cognitive scientists exploit this

phenomenon, using doom-laden works by Prokofiev to induce

low mood in experimental subjects.

More generally, bland, relaxing music (‘elevator music’ or

‘muzak’) is used in public places as a calming influence (and to

encourage customers to browse longer). In 2002, by contrast,

loud classical music was introduced at Copenhagen’s main

railway station to discourage drug dealers and sex workers.

In 1989, loud music was also used during ‘Operation Nifty

Package’, the US Government’s attempt to capture General

Noriega, a military dictator in Panama. Loud music was blasted

at the Vatican diplomatic mission where he had taken refuge.

Music has been used on captives by US forces, for example at

Guantánamo Bay and in Iraq.

We are the world: diverse musical forms from around the world.

Psycho killer: film scores can evoke powerful emotions.

You shook me all night long

As any Hollywood

soundtrack composer

knows, music can be

used to manipulate

people’s state of mind.

JUNE 2009 5

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Lew Zimmerman/

iStockphoto, Neal

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Page 6: Big Picture: Music, Mind and Medicine

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6 Big Picture 10: Music, Mind and Medicine

Slice open the skull and a neuroanatomist could instantly spot signs of a professional musician. Musicians typically have an enlarged corpus callosum – the cables that pass from one side of the brain to the other. Certain areas of the cortex would also be well developed, particularly those dealing with sound, motor coordination and hand–eye coordination.

A violinist’s brain might show enhanced grey matter in the motor areas specifically associated with the fingers of the left hand (used for fingering). He or she might also show greater activation in auditory areas in response to violin tones than to trumpet tones.

There is also evidence that musicians use their brains in a different way, engaging a more ‘analytical’ strategy than non-musicians when listening to melodies.

So musicians’ brains are different. Studies are now underway to see how the brains of musicians change as they go through their training.

What does it take to be a good musician? Is it all down to natural

talent or can everyone become a virtuoso, given the chance?

And once learned, do musical skills help us in any other way?

Perhaps they could be applied to help heal the sick. For centuries

music was seen as integral to the healing arts. Now, it is beginning to

make a comeback – though hard evidence of patient benefits is scant.

Things can only get better

Day after dayIs musical ability something you are born with or does it come with practice?

Could anyone, given the opportunity, become a concert

pianist or are there a select few with the potential to excel?

A would-be musician must learn a new set of skills: generic

skills such as reading music and specific skills associated with

a chosen instrument. Across many areas of human endeavour,

after initial training, further improvements tend to be gradual,

peaking after many years’ effort – exactly when depending on

the skill being learned. Typically, performance then declines

slightly in later life. So an elite performer will generally take at

least a decade – and often much longer – to reach their peak.

Enhanced skills seem to depend on deliberate practice –

repeatedly attempting specified tasks, assessing performance

and striving for improvement. The aim is to prevent playing

becoming ‘automated’ – mastered to the point that it no

longer requires active cognitive thought. Although automation

is an important step in mastering an instrument, to develop

further a player must actively strive to enhance their

performance. So simply rehearsing a piece hundreds of times

will not necessarily lead to improvements.

Typically, reaching a level needed to win international

competitions means devoting more than 10 000 hours to

deliberate practice.

So is it all down to the right kind of practice? Possibly. On

the other hand, a genetic study of isolated Finnish populations

found evidence for genes associated with musical aptitude

on chromosomes 4 and 8. This and other evidence suggests

that innate musical ability will vary between individuals in a

population.

Simply the best

Music has been marginalised in

medicine. Now, though, many

doctors are arguing for its wider

therapeutic use.

Not surprisingly, given its power

to influence mood and behaviour,

its most popular uses are for

psychological and psychiatric

disorders, as well as neurological

conditions and pain control.

Music has proven value in situations

likely to promote , such

as children’s medical and dental

treatment (right) and cervical cancer

screening. Other well-established

uses include interventions for people

with chronic pain or tinnitus and

children with migraine.

But the effects are often not great

and may not be long-lasting: in

dementia, music reduces disruptive

behaviour at the time but has little

long-term impact.

That said, absence of evidence is

not the same as evidence of absence

– it may just be that the right studies

have not been done to assess a

clinically relevant effect.

What does it take to be musically gifted?

I can make you feel goodWhat role is there for music in modern medicine?

A book of popular songs produced by Alka-Seltzer in 1937.

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Page 7: Big Picture: Music, Mind and Medicine

JUNE 2009 7

In 1998, the Governor of the US state of

Georgia, Zell Miller, decreed that all Georgian

children should be given a tape or CD of

classical music. He believed in the ‘Mozart

effect’ – that listening to classical music could

boost your brainpower.

In fact, Miller was overstating the case.

Listening to Mozart only stimulated spatial

reasoning – people got better at solving

mazes – and only for about ten minutes after

their dose of culture.

And not everyone is convinced that Mozart

is anything special. Some argue that the effect

is simply down to mood and arousal. One

study found a Mozart effect in young children

listening to pop music. It’s also been seen

in rodents navigating mazes. The biggest

effect, though, has probably been on sales of

Mozart’s ‘Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major’

(K. 448).

Yet there is a widespread belief that music is

‘good for you’. Indeed, there is some evidence

that learning to play an instrument can

enhance abilities in other areas – the transfer

effect. For example, some mathematical

reasoning comes more easily to the musically

trained child. Other skills such as reading,

motor coordination and conceptual reasoning

also appear to be improved by musical

education.

Despite the enthusiasm of some parents-

to-be for bombarding their babies with Mozart

while in the womb, there is little evidence that

any benefits result.

In ancient Greece, Apollo was the god of

both healing and music. Music was seen

to be a powerful influence over people.

It was divided into three forms:

● Phrygian: stirring, martial music

● Dorian: solemn and slow, noble

and pious

● I onian: jolly and joyful.

The meaning of these terms has

changed somewhat since then.

Internal balance of the four bodily

humours (black bile, yellow bile, phlegm

and blood) was seen as particularly

important, an idea that survived until

modern times. Music could exert its

influence by acting on the humours.

Music was thought to be detected

in the ear by animal spirits, which

transmitted reverberations through the

body in the bloodstream. The 17th-

century German physician Athanasius

Kircher illustrated the concept by showing

how music affected vessels filled with

different kinds of fluid, representing the

different humours.

As more mechanistic views of nature

developed, the German scientist

Herman von Helmholtz linked the

physics of sounds and the anatomy of

human hearing. He proposed reasons

for perceptions of consonance and

dissonance and later showed how several

physiological factors were affected

by various aspects of music (pitch,

loudness etc.).

Music therapy has often been applied

in mental health. In the 18th century, the

singing of the castrato Farinelli reputedly

brought King Philip V of Spain out of

depression, and a daily dose of singing

kept him well until his death ten years

later. As treatments of mentally ill

people became more humane in

the late 19th century, music sometimes

formed part of therapy – either listening

or music making.

Rock me AmadeusDoes music make you smarter?

Crazy

Tarantism is a peculiar chapter in the story of music and health.

In regions of Italy and Spain during the 16th and

17th centuries, some women periodically fell into a

stupor from which they could be roused only by music.

The condition was commonly blamed on the bite of a

spider (though not the tarantula of popular imagination).

Musicians travelled the countryside trying different

instruments and songs to rouse the ‘tarantati’. Rapid

repetitive tunes with increasing tempo would bring

patients to a dancing frenzy, often lasting several days.

Thereafter, they would spontaneously dance whenever

they heard a ‘tarantella’ (below).

Many physicians attempted to explain the condition,

drawing upon voguish theories. Today it would be

considered a mass delusion.

Many composers have drawn upon the Tarantella in

their works, and it also appeared in The Godfather and

inspired a jinx (‘Tarantallegra’) in Harry Potter and the

Chamber of Secrets.

I feel fineMusic has a long history in the healing arts.

Franz Mesmer (from whom we get the word mesmerise and, indirectly, hypnosis) developed a form of therapy that aimed to improve the flow of ‘life forces’ (‘magnétisme animal’) through the body, often using a glass harmonica in his therapies. The French King Louis XVI ordered a high-level enquiry – which

no evidence for Mesmer’s supposed new fluid.

Listen with mother: playing music to unborn babies.

● In a recent study of keyhole surgery,

surgeons who played a musical instrument

were significantly faster at suturing than

those who did not.

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Why did music evolve?

There are two ways to explain the

evolution of music. The first, the

adaptationist view, is that music must

serve some purpose that has led to its

selection. An alternative argument is

that it has no direct purpose itself but

is a by-product of some other human

capacity (see below).

If we assume music has some survival

value, what might it be? Charles Darwin

suggested might be at

work. Good singers or musicians might be

signalling their fitness to potential mates.

● In 1925 the anthropologist Malinowski

described a noted singer on the island of

Kiriwina: “Mokadayu, of Okopukopu, was

a famous singer. Like all of his profession

he was no less renowned for his success

with the ladies. ‘For,’ say the natives,

‘the throat is a long passage like the wila

(vagina), and the two attract each other.’

‘A man who has a beautiful voice will like

women very much and they will like him.’”

There is some evidence to support

this idea (such as the renowned success

of pop stars at attracting mates). More

recently, symmetry – generally thought to

be a sign of ‘good genes’ – was found to

be associated with an attractive voice. On

the other hand, music is typically a group

activity, and associated with rituals rather

than courtship.

The alternative view is that music acts

as a bonding agent and emerged as

part of the development of social groups.

Among primates, humans are intensely

social; much of our success has relied on

our ability to coordinate our actions and

communicate our state of mind to others.

A coherent collaborating group would have

been able to hunt better, see off enemies

and protect vulnerable infants.

She bangs the drumsWhen did music first appear?

Music is a part of essentially all human cultures,

suggesting that it is very ancient and evolved early in

human history.

Early music may have relied on the human voice or

basic percussion using natural materials. Some ancient

artefacts may have been used to generate sounds,

but the earliest unambiguously musical instrument is

probably a flute discovered in Germany, which is about

36 000 years old.

Bone flutes 8000–9000 years old have been found

in China and play notes in ancient Chinese musical

systems.

Two 4000–5000-year-old marble statues show that well-defined

musical forms had developed by the late Stone Age. They show

a flute player and a musician playing a triangular lyre or harp. By

the time documented civilisations appear, all have well-defined

musical traditions.

What of other human species? What may be a 43 000-year-old

Neanderthal flute was recently found in Slovenia, while Steven

Mithen has argued in his book The Singing Neanderthals that the

anatomy of their vocal systems would have allowed them to sing.

His proposal is part of a growing reassessment of Neanderthals

and their culture, suggesting that they were neither as brutish nor

dim as once made out.

What is the point of music?Perhaps the biggest mystery in music is what it is actually for. A

classical evolutionary perspective would argue that, as a seemingly

innate aspect of human behaviour, music must have some purpose

– provide some kind of survival advantage. But how would musical

ability have helped our ancient ancestors? Perhaps instead it is an

evolutionary quirk, a by-product of our advanced brains.

The times they are a-changing

8 Big Picture 10: Music, Mind and Medicine

I heard it through the grapevine

Far left: An early South American flute made from a bone. Near left: Frieze depicting dancing figures.

Jump to the beat: did music unite early humans…

…or was it a love thing?

Eat to the beatStephen Jay Gould popularised the idea that not all features of an organism are

necessarily adaptive (as classical Darwinian thinking would maintain). He used the analogy

of ‘spandrels’ – the spaces between the arches in cathedrals, which served no structural

function but were often filled with paintings by artists. They may have looked stunning but

they were only there because a cathedral needs arches to stop it falling down.

The writer Steven Pinker describes music as “auditory cheesecake”. We never evolved

to find cheesecake tasty – it taps into our innate fondness for energy-rich foods.

Page 9: Big Picture: Music, Mind and Medicine

JUNE 2009 9

Can animals make music?

Many species of animal – such as birds and whales –

produce sounds sharing at least some similarities to human

music. Mice also sing, though at frequencies too high for

humans to hear.

The highly evocative and complex sounds of humpback

and blue whales are made during the mating season,

suggestive of sexual selection. Humpbacks also appear to

make feeding calls, suggesting a role for communication.

Sexual selection and communication also lie at the heart

of birdsong and gibbon song. Gibbons duet with one

another, and also use song to warn of approaching

predators.

Birdsong has inspired numerous composers, old and new,

from Beethoven and Wagner to Pink Floyd and Kate Bush

(notably Olivier Messiaen). Indeed, it can trigger powerful

emotional responses (beautifully captured

in Keats’s ‘Ode to a Nightingale’).

The palm cockatoo is a proficient

drummer. A male will fashion a

‘drumstick’ from a twig it has broken

off a tree and, as part of a courtship

ritual, hold it in its foot and bang it

against a hollow log.

Music can be a powerful bonding agent.

Music is an individual experience. But

it also has a striking collective impact,

helping to establish bonds that unite

individuals around a common identity.

National anthems, enough to

reduce sports players to tears, can

inspire loyalty to a national cause.

Some countries have ‘national’

instruments (the bagpipes in

Scotland, bouzouki in Greece).

Several composers have been seen as

personifying national values (Chopin

and Poland, Wagner and Germany).

Particular musical forms characterise

certain ethnic groups (reggae among

African Caribbeans, soul music in

African Americans) and are often a key

part of a population’s cultural heritage.

Social identity theory suggests

that we draw upon external influences

when developing a sense of who

we really are – particularly during

adolescence, as we begin to establish

identities independent of our families.

Musical preferences are a way we

can identify similar ‘ingroup’ members

and distinguishing ourselves from

‘outgroups’. This may lead to the

‘subcultures’ often associated with

adolescence – the emos, goths, etc.

Why is music so important in this

process? It seems to have a ‘special’

role, with characteristics – rhythms,

melodies, harmonies, sound and

words – that reflect the lives and

states of mind and body of those

who belong to the subculture.

All around the worldMusic, like language, shows much regional variation.

Western music has tended to be polarised into ‘high’ and

‘low’ culture, with social elites favouring the classical

tradition. But this formal music has always coexisted

alongside informal music traditions – folk music. Towards

the end of the 19th century, interest grew in European and

American folk music, with composers such as Béla Bartók

travelling widely in eastern Europe documenting songs and

incorporating traditional music into their own compositions.

In the UK and the USA, Cecil Sharp was influential in the

revival of interest in folk music, and did much to ensure that

traditional music and dance was recorded for posterity. It was

probably Sharp’s interest that kept Morris dancing alive.

Interestingly, because many traditional songs were passed

on from person to person without being formally written down,

they often varied from place to place. The ancient ballad

‘Barbara Allan’ (mentioned by Samuel Pepys in his diaries)

exists in many different forms. Indeed, Cecil Sharp likened the

process to evolution by natural selection – whereby different

variants appear and those proving most popular in a particular

population thrive and are passed on.

In the 20th century, many efforts were made to capture

and document traditional music. In recent decades, a surge

of interest in ‘world music’ has seen many traditional forms

of music reach Western ears. New and old forms of music

have been combined in fusion music, including dance music

incorporating traditional sounds and modern electronic beats.

African musicians have absorbed Western instruments such

as the electric guitar, creating unique and distinctive new

forms of music.

Nonetheless, creeping globalisation runs the risk of

swamping local and traditional forms of music, just as other

forms of Western culture threaten ancient ways of life.

Pleasure and painMusic plays a central role in healing

and medicine of the Circassian or

Adyghe people of eastern Europe.

A particular rite known as ‘Chapsh’

was used for injuries such as

snakebite or bullet wounds. A violinist

would play songs and children

perform dances, often epic tales

of heroes. Their aim was to soothe

and distract the patient and identify

with the heroes’ courage.

The roots of this rite are said to lie

in the treatment of Kodgeberduko,

hero of the Caucasian war, who had

a bullet removed from his leg,

with a folk tune acting

as anaesthetic.

Leader of the pack

House of the rising sun

● The song of the canyon wren is said to cascade

down the musical scale like the opening of Chopin’s

‘Revolutionary Étude’.

Above (left to right): Music from Nepal, Argentina and India.Bottom: Two Circassian accordion players.

Music is central to youth subcultures.

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Bring the noise

Loss of hearing is an occupational hazard for musicians – and a problem for those who listen to them.

Loudspeakers and amplified music have

increased many people’s listening pleasure, but

at considerable cost. High-volume music may

be pleasurable at the time but it can store up

problems for the future.

The main problem is that sounds are detected

by physical deformation of fragile hair cells,

which can be damaged by loud sounds. The

first to go are hair cells sensing high-frequency

sounds in the first part of the cochlea.

Short-term signs of damage include ringing in

the ears (tinnitus) or temporary deafness. In the

long term, these can become permanent.

At particular risk are musicians regularly

exposed to loud music. In the early days of

rock, the dangers of loud music were not so

well appreciated, and many musicians now

suffer from impaired hearing (e.g. such as the

Who’s Pete Townsend, who now works to raise

awareness of the dangers).

Why is loud music so appealing? There is

some evidence that loud music can stimulate

ear structures outside the hearing system –

creating a ‘physical’ sensation as

well as an aural one. Indeed, part

of the attraction of some

forms of music, such as

reggae or bass-heavy

dance music, may lie in

its physical impact.

Music may be near-universal but people’s

musical experiences may differ greatly. Some

people may struggle to perceive structures

in music that are obvious to others. Some

may experience music constantly playing

in their head while a few even ‘see’ music.

Understanding how unusual perceptions

come about can reveal much about how

the brain interprets music.

Now you’re gone

● A six-month-old baby from

Taiwan had epilepsy triggered

by loud music (musicogenic

epilepsy). She was particularly

sensitive to the Beatles.

Imagine having a song on

permanent play in your head.

That is what people with

musical hallucinations have to

contend with.

We may all know the feeling of having a song

‘on the brain’. But a musical hallucination is

different: it is just like actually hearing the song.

They are seen in a variety of groups, such

as people who become deaf in middle to later

life, people with schizophrenia or some types

of brain damage, and even as a side-effect of

drug treatments. They are not always seen as

a nuisance – in one study, around a quarter of

people found them pleasurable.

They may arise because the brain mistakenly

characterises brain activity in musical

processing areas as externally generated.

A study in Wales found that the condition

tended to affect older people with hearing

loss. They experienced all kinds of songs,

from ‘Three Blind Mice’ to ‘Don’t Cry for Me

Argentina’, though hymns were particularly

common among the religious. It appears that

songs from the past, with a deep emotional

connection, are those that bubble up in

the brain.

Sound of the crowd

Hairs on a sound-detecting hair cell in the inner ear.

● After collapsing in 2000, a 52-year-old radio

announcer recovered well but completely lost the

‘shiver down the spine’ he had previously always

had to Rachmaninov – probably because of

damage to his ‘emotional brain’ areas.

10 Big Picture 10: Music, Mind and Medicine

creating a ‘p

well as an a

sensitive to the Beatles.

Imagine having a song o

permanent play in your

That is what people with

musical hallucinations ha

contend with.

We may all know the feeling of hav

‘on the brain’ But a musical hallucina

I can’t get you out of my head

Not everyone can hold a perfect tune. Some can’t but don’t really care, while some – tone- or tune- deaf people – can’t actually tell they are out of tune.

True tone deafness (or amusia) affects about

5 per cent of the population. Generally,

people with amusia cannot perceive music

normally because of an underlying deficit in

processing pitch and melody. It seems to be

linked to characteristic brain abnormalities,

including fewer ‘white matter’ connections

between different areas of the brain.

Some people with amusia still enjoy music.

For others, though, music is just a cacophony

– as one person put it, “like pots and pans

falling on a stone floor”. Amusia may develop

after head injuries or strokes, but in most

cases people are born with it.

Perception of a bum note triggers two

characteristic types of electrical activity in the

brain. Interestingly, one of these signals is also

seen in tone-deaf people, suggesting that

their brains have spotted the discordant note

even though it does not register consciously.

Less often, people with amusia can hear

tones but cannot hear any meaning in a

sequence of notes – a melody. Others lack

only the ability to distinguish timbre. Some

specifically cannot perceive dissonant tones.

Intriguingly, these people typically have

lesions in the brain area involved in

emotional judgements.

● Revolutionary icon Che Guevara may have suffered from congenital amusia.

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JUNE 2009 11

knot of blood vessels removed from his brain. The operation was a

success but left Martino with severe amnesia. He had no memory

of his past life as a guitarist. Years later, he picked up the guitar

again and gradually revived dormant musical skills.

Car accidents and strokes can also instantly destroy someone’s

musical appreciation – or a highly specific aspect of it. Bizarrely,

some people actually gain musical obsessions and skills after brain

damage. In his book Musicophilia the neurologist Oliver Sacks

describes how a man struck by lightning developed a consuming

desire to hear and play music. He taught himself to play the piano

and now composes music.

A speculative idea is that damage to the brain is releasing (or

‘disinhibiting’) a block on musical processing in the brain. Normally,

the brain dampens down music networks as it has so many other

tasks to attend to. If this inhibition is lost, music may flood

the brain.

An echo of this may be seen in people with unusual mental

abilities. Children with Williams syndrome are highly sociable

and have a natural affinity for music (though not necessarily high

ability). People with the condition have lost a set of genes on

chromosome 7, and have characteristic abnormalities in

brain structure.

mentally disabled but with astonishing musical abilities. They

can play pieces of music almost perfectly after hearing them only

once. Musical savants are often blind and have perfect pitch.

Red red whine

Martino Unstrung.

● Composer Robert Schumann suffered musical

A, which evolved into “magnificent music, with instrument of splendid resonance, the like of which has never been heard on Earth before”. He worked

the tune into a violin concerto.

● US singer Gloria Lenhoff, who has

Williams syndrome, cannot subtract five

from twelve or write her name legibly,

and has an IQ of 55, but has a repertoire

of hundreds of songs in a dozen

languages. She cannot read music but

has memorised each and every song.

Colour-coded keyboards developed

Scriabin (top) and Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (bottom). Rimsky-Korsakov was a genuine synaesthete, but Scriabin’s system was an intellectual attempt to identify the ‘natural’ colours of notes.

Say hello, wave goodbye

In most people, the auditory nerve

ferries signals from the ear’s hearing

apparatus to sound-processing areas

of the brain. In people with certain

forms of synaesthesia, however, these

connections seem to take detours. As

well as hearing music, they may also

‘see’ it or ‘taste’ it.

Sound–vision synaesthesia is relatively

common. Musical sounds generate

distinctive visual experiences. Particular

notes may be associated with specific

colours. Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov

is said to have had synaesthetically

coloured musical keys, while Franz

Liszt would startle orchestras by

asking: “Gentlemen, a little bluer, if you

please!” According to jazz pioneer Duke

Ellington: “If Harry Carney is playing,

D is dark blue burlap. If Johnny Hodges

is playing, G becomes light blue satin.”

Perhaps even more remarkably, a

case recently came to light of a musician

with synaesthesia for musical notation.

As well as seeing notes as particular

colours, she could also taste intervals

between notes (e.g. a major second

was bitter, a major sixth tasted like low-

fat cream). Interestingly, consonant tone

intervals produce pleasant sensations,

dissonant ones unpleasant ones.

Very strikingly, the ability to recognise

musical intervals is something that has

to be learned, and so the synaesthesia

has ‘evolved’ along with her

musical training.

● A severely deaf 86-year-old woman

had worked in the City for 40 years. After

developing tinnitus, she began to hear

musical hallucinations and would try to

sing along with them, only complaining

when they broke up into short musical

phrases (like a scratched record).

Musical interests can fade away – or suddenly appear.

HURTMusicians are at risk

of a wide range of

conditions. Read

about the dangers

of tinnitus, repetitive

strain injury and ‘cello

player’s scrotum’

at Big Picture

Online.

People with synaesthesia may experience music in radically different ways.

www.wellcome.ac.uk/bigpicture/music

ON THE WEB

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12 Big Picture 10: Music, Mind and Medicine

What is this thing we call creativity and how does it apply to music?

Artists of all forms are credited with ‘creativity’.

Although difficult to pin down precisely, it can

be seen as a mental process generating a new

idea or way of doing something, as opposed

to copying what has already been done before.

In that sense, creativity is not solely the domain

of the artist but covers all innovative thinkers –

including scientists.

All composers and songwriters are to some

degree creative, producing novel works. But

some are generally considered more innovative

than others. Classical composers such as

Mozart, Beethoven and Johann Sebastian

Bach developed new forms of composition that

profoundly influenced those that followed. Louis

Armstrong pioneered innovations in jazz. Chuck

Berry, some argue, invented rock and roll, while

Kool Herc and others in New York created

rap music.

Do these disparate individuals have anything

in common? Some models of creativity

emphasise individual personality traits –

creative people may be more ‘complex’, in that

they can hold apparently paradoxical views in

their heads, or they may be better risk-takers,

or less worried about upsetting the status quo.

Neuroscientific perspectives emphasise the

importance of ‘divergent thinking’ – opening

up new possibilities rather than closing them

down. The prefrontal cortex, the high-level

‘thinking’ area of the brain, may be particularly

important. In a 2008 study comparing trained

musicians and matched controls, the musicians

showed greater divergent thinking and stronger

activation in this region of the brain.

Other work suggests that the ‘emotional

brain’ and dopamine-based reward pathways

are also important.

On the other hand, creativity does not operate

in a social vacuum. The musical expression

of creativity is rooted in the circumstances of

people’s lives – be it Mozart’s hothousing in

Vienna court life or rap pioneers’ urban

New York. Igor Stravinsky, arguably the

most influential classical composer of the

20th century, was part of a broader

‘modernist’ movement.

An ability to see the world differently is a

feature of both the highly creative and the

mentally ill. Is creative genius one step

from madness?

Anecdotally, there is a fine history of

odd behaviour among musical geniuses.

Mozart was renowned for his eccentricity

(some suggest he had Tourette syndrome).

A commonly hypothesised cause is bipolar

disorder (manic depression), where individuals

experience alternating periods of depression

and intense highs. The young Rossini was

astonishingly productive, writing 39 operas by

the age of 37 (but none thereafter), possibly

driven by mania. German composer Robert

Schumann attempted suicide and spent his

last two years confined to a mental institution

(at his own request).

Oddly, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia

have a genetic component. Why are risk genes

not eliminated? One possible explanation is

that ‘mild’ forms, associated with enhanced

creativity, actually improve reproductive

success. A recent study of UK poets and visual

artists provided some support for this idea.

Creative people are more likely to act outside

conventional norms of behaviour. On some

measures of ‘abnormality’, they rate as highly

as people with schizophrenia. Ideally, they can

channel this instinctive non-conformity towards

positive ends. Unfortunately, with no suitable

outlet, or when swamped with negative

emotions, these ways of thinking can become

highly damaging.

Making your mind up

You drive me crazyMusical geniuses: are they all mad?

Ravel may have had an unusual form of dementia affecting the frontal lobe of his brain, which could have influenced his compositions. People with this disorder have a tendency to repeat acts over and over, which could account for the repetitive style of his most famous work, ‘Boléro’). Curiously, Anne Adams, a scientist who also had a form of dementia affecting one part of her brain, was overtaken by an urge to produce visual art, including representations of music in paint, and became obsessed with Ravel.

Let’s talk about sexAccording to a recent study, the average US adolescent hears around 84 references to substance use (mostly positive) every day in music (depending on what type of music they listen to). In 279 of 2005’s popular US songs, more than a third contained references to sexual activity (often degrading sex references). In this and another US study, published in February 2009, adolescents’ sexual behaviour appeared

to be strongly influenced by their exposure to sexual lyrics.

Great composers and songwriters constantly innovate. But

what do we know about human creativity and its application

in music?

New forms of music are often in the vanguard of social

change. Are they driving change or simply reflecting new ways

of thinking and behaving? And how much are they influencing

the way people act – perhaps in antisocial or undesirable ways?

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Kurt Cobain of Nirvana. A study found musicians less likely to commit suicide than painters, writers or sculptors.

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JUNE 2009 13

Music is commonly accompanied by dance – indeed, the two may have evolved together.

Music and dance often go hand in hand and

it seems likely that their origins are closely

entwined. The brain’s locomotion systems

and auditory systems clearly interact. When

we hear a sudden noise, we may blink or

jump without intending to (the acoustic startle

response), which involves pathways running

directly from the ear to the spinal systems

controlling movement. Of relevance to music,

babies listening to six-beat rhythms can

perceive it as a march (three pairs of beats) or

a waltz (two sets of three) depending on how

they are bounced on someone’s knee.

Dance is often associated with rituals and

plays an important social role. An attractive

theory is that dance, like music, evolved to

strengthen social groups. Music and dance

would have provided a mechanism to reinforce

group identity – and to impress potential

enemies.

Later, music and dance were appropriated

by ruling elites to reinforce social structures

and promote conformism. Religious

movements in particular have used music and

dance as a form of group identity – from the

hymns of Christianity, the Gospel music of

Southern Baptism to the Islamic adhan (call to

prayer). Music has a special place in Tibetan

Buddhism. Monks use music to recite sacred

texts and at various festivals.

Dance has fared less well, suffering

from its association with pagan rituals and

entertainment. Even so, it remains at the

heart of many religions, including strands of

Christianity and Islam. In Hinduism, the entire

universe is thought to have been conjured up

through the dance of the Supreme Dancer,

Nataraja. A version of ritualistic dance

survives today in the form of South Indian

Classical Dance.

Rhythm is a dancer

Lesson of Kathak, a classical Indian dance.

Dictators have been quick to apply music

to social control. Rousing anthems may be

used to cohere populations. And anything

seen as vaguely subversive has rapidly

been banned. Nazi Germany had firm

guidelines on the type of music that could

be performed. Wagner, Beethoven and

Bruckner were in; Mendelssohn, Mahler

and Schoenberg (all Jewish) were out.

Conversely, it has also been a rallying

call for dissenters. Folk music has often

been a medium for commentary on social

Guthrie pioneered the modern ‘protest

song’ during the Great Depression.

Songs such as Billie Holliday’s ‘Strange

‘We Shall Overcome’ became strongly

associated with the US Civil Rights

Movement.

‘We Shall Overcome’ was also heard in

Europe during the collapse of the Soviet

Bloc. Particularly striking was the ‘Singing

Revolution’ of Estonia, marked by public

singing of patriotic songs, forbidden under

Soviet rule.

Like the written word, song can

communicate powerful ideas, but can

also unite groups and appeal to deep

emotional forces in a way that books

cannot. Evolution has crafted our brains to

be especially predisposed to music – and

performers tap into this primeval instinct to

inspire, influence and inflame.

Music has been used both to suppress and to promote dissension.

Kick over the statues

Left: A Soviet-era song festival poster, used in the 2006 documentary The Singing Revolution. Above: Aretha Franklin and Martin Luther King.

● In China in the 1940s, Communist authorities launched a huge campaign using revolutionary songs based on traditional folk music to educate the illiterate

masses on Party goals. www.wellcome.ac.uk/bigpicture/music

THE

MESSAGE

ON THE WEB

Are bands corrupting the young by coding messages into

their songs? Big Picture Online looks at the odd history

of ‘backmasking’ – messages supposedly audible when

songs are played backwards.

● In The Jungle Book’s ‘I Wanna Be Like You’, the orang-utan ‘king of the swingers’ King Louie wanted to know the secret of fire: “Give me the power of man’s red flower”. Ironically, the syncopated ape and his cronies may already have had a key human attribute – the ability to sing and dance together.

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14 Big Picture 10: Music, Mind and Medicine

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Real voices

Adrian North

What do you do?

I’m a music psychologist and Director

of Psychology at Heriot–Watt University,

Edinburgh.

How did you first get into music?

I started playing the guitar at age ten and still play now, although I

am absolutely terrible! A career as a musician was never

a possibility.

What part does music play in your life?

While lots of music psychologists study the process of making

music, I examine the listeners’ point of view. One thing I’m

exploring at the moment is the possible negative effects of rap

and heavy rock music on young people. I also research the use of

music in commercial environments such as restaurants and shops,

which is a multimillion-dollar worldwide industry.

My research means that I have become sensitised to the music

that we hear around us, and I’ve realised how prevalent music is

in our everyday lives. Also, I’m sure I’ll be monitoring what my son

listens to when he’s older!

Who has been the greatest musical influence on you?

It has to be the Beatles: clearly the best band in the world! They

have wonderful melodies combined with wonderful musicianship

and wonderful lyrics. There’s also the cultural aspects: they were at

the forefront of the change that showed pop music could be art.

Why do we have music?

It’s clear that people use music as a badge of identity, but they also

use it as a medicine – dosing themselves throughout the day to

get what they want from a situation. Just think of the kind of music

used in gyms.

iPods and other technology are changing the way we use music.

When I was doing my A levels I’d walk around college with a bag

full of cassettes, which still only covered a tiny proportion of my

music collection. Now, people can take their entire collections with

them. For many young people today, listening to music is a much

more throwaway experience. There will be times when you really

get into the music, but sometimes it’s just sonic wallpaper, on in

the background.

What’s your desert island disc?

It has to be the Beatles: Magical Mystery Tour, the most tuneful

of the lot.

Troi ‘DJ Chinaman’ Lee

What do you do?

I’m a DJ and events organiser who was

born deaf. I founded www.deafrave.com.

How did you first get into music?

When I was about ten I got my first Walkman. I’d put the

headphones not over my ears, but over my hearing aids. People

would look at me strangely, but that’s how I listen to music. I went

to my first (hearing) rave when I was 17, and that really got me into

the rave scene. I found that deaf people didn’t really understand

raves though – it wasn’t in their culture.

When I was 20 I was involved with a pirate radio crew and got

my first decks. A deaf girl was having a house party and asked me

to DJ there. My cousin, a professional DJ, lived round the corner,

so I got a wheelbarrow and loaded his speakers in. It was a great

party and a turning point for my career. Afterwards, at deaf nights

in the pub, people kept asking me when the next party was. I

decided to host one for 700 and Deaf Rave was born!

What part does music play in your life?

For the last six years I’ve been putting on parties and raves for

deaf people. These events are really important as they give deaf

people a chance to get out and socialise. Nearly everyone at the

parties knows each other.

All people are welcome but I’d say around 95 per cent of people

that come are deaf. There are different levels of deafness – some

people have hearing aids or cochlear implants, but the majority

don’t. Some parts of the parties could seem strange to hearing

people, for example performers signing along to songs instead of

singing them.

Who or what has been the greatest musical influence on you?

The people I grew up with made a massive impact. Musician-wise,

it has to be Public Enemy and Bob Marley.

What’s the point of music?

Music brings people together, and without music there’s no

energy. When I’m listening to music at home it makes me move,

makes me feel emotion. I can’t imagine life without basslines

and beats.

What’s your desert island disc?

‘Fattie Boom Boom’ by Ranking Dread, a Jamaican singer who’s

dead now. I play it everywhere I go.

their personal interests and perceptions of music’s wider role – and to share with us their ‘desert island disc’.

Page 15: Big Picture: Music, Mind and Medicine

JUNE 2009 15

Education editor: Stephanie Forman

Editor: Ian Jones, Isinglass Consultancy Ltd

Writers: Ian Jones, Harriet Cole

Illustrator: Glen McBeth

Jennifer Trent Staves

Advisory board: Nan Davies, Tim Griffiths, Peregrine Horden, Nigel Osborne,

Michael Reiss, Laurent Stewart, Michael Thaut

All images, unless otherwise indicated, are from Wellcome Images.

The Wellcome Trust is a charity whose mission is to foster and promote research

with the aim of improving human and animal health (a charity registered in England,

no. 210183). Reflecting the profound impact today’s research will have on society,

the Wellcome Trust also seeks to raise awareness of the medical, ethical and social

implications of research and promote dialogue between scientists, the public and

policy makers.

ISSN 1745-7777

© The trustee of the Wellcome Trust 2009.

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MP-4388/7.6K/05–2009/RL

Melodic marvels

Jennifer Rohn

What do you do?

I’m a scientist studying the genetics of cell shape

and movement at University College London.

How did you first get into music?

I started piano lessons when I was five years old and guitar lessons

when I was eight. I also played trombone in a band and sang in choirs. I

had always wanted to be a musician but I was interested in science too,

so it was a struggle deciding what to do at university. In the end I wasn’t

talented enough to be a professional musician, and I loved science

more. At university I fell out of music but started to get back into it when

I began working as a scientist. I’ve recently joined a band called Frank-

a-delic as the singer. We’re a bunch of ageing scientists, ex-scientists

and publishers – all in our 40s.

What part does music play in your life?

I use it a lot in work. Science is quite laborious and there’s a lot of

manual labour in my job – the mindless moving of small amounts of

liquid from one tube to another. At those times I really appreciate music.

Music is very important to labs and it’s hard to find one where there isn’t

a CD player or radio on.

Who has been the greatest musical influence on you?

I like all kinds of music. Playing the piano, I was raised with classical

music, but my Dad is very eclectic. He has a huge record collection and

loves everything: country and western, jazz, classical. I like most things

too, including pop music. The only stuff I don’t enjoy is some types of

jazz and modern music. Music has to make me want to move around.

Why do we have music?

I think it’s a way to bring us together. Other animals vocalise, birds sing.

It’s all about finding a mate or warning somebody off, communicating

really basic emotions. I think we use music to communicate too.

What’s your desert island disc?

I’m a romantic; it would have to be Woodface by

Crowded House. It’s not fashionable but it makes me smile!

A series of student activities exploring auditory

effects has been developed to go with this

issue of Big Picture. A variety of downloads

relating to music, mind and medicine can be

found in an audio library at www.wellcome.

ac.uk/bigpicture/music. Teacher and student

notes will guide you through exercises relating

to these mp3 files.

students will have the chance to learn about the nature

of auditory illusion, the effect of music on our minds

and bodies, and the potential for music in medicine.

A special homework activity lets students investigate

the impact different types of music have

on their mood.

The activities are all free to download

and are relevant to the post-16

specifications in England,

Scotland and Wales. Everything

in school is available at www.

wellcome.ac.uk/bigpicture/music.

ONLINE ACTIVITY

students investigate

ic have

wnload

c.

www.wellcome.ac.uk/bigpicture/music

ON THE WEB

How exactly do deaf people experience music?

Hear more about Troi Lee's life and work at

Big Picture Online.

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Page 16: Big Picture: Music, Mind and Medicine

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● Music is part of all human cultures.

● It is thought to have appeared very early in human evolution.

● Music may have appeared before language but the relationship between the two is uncertain.

● Early music may have involved the human voice and rhythmic percussion using natural materials.

● Many animals make sounds with similarities to human music.

● The original purpose of music is not known for sure.

● Its evolution may have been driven

of group bonding.

● Alternatively, music may have no adaptive value but be a by-product of other human capacities.

● Music has a number of distinct characteristics, such as pitch, timbre and rhythm.

● Music is processed in the brain by a number of interconnected areas.

● Damage to these areas can selectively remove specific aspects of musical appreciation.

● Music has strong connections to the emotional areas of the brain.

● Composers use music to manipulate listeners’ moods.

● Music was an important part of medicine for many centuries.

● Although music is now rare in medicine, it has been shown to be effective in some areas.

● Elite musical performance is primarily the result of intensive practice.

● Learning musical skills has spin-off benefits in some other areas.

● Rituals involving music are an important part of many cultures and religions.

● Music has been used as both a means

a tool to suppress dissent.

● Music is particularly effective at establishing group social identities.

● Musical preferences provide particularly strong insights into individual identities.

● Abnormalities in musical perception are seen in a number of conditions.

● Enhanced musical appreciation and, occasionally, musical skills are seen in some conditions.

● Musical creativity may be associated with particular unconventional ways of thinking.

MUSIC, MIND AND MEDICINE

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