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.~ - . * \\'alsh, R.N., and F. Vaughan. Beyond the ego. - ' REYOND THE EGO: -- - ,., TOWARD TRANSPERSONAL MODELS OF ',: THE PERSON AND PSYCHOTHERAPY' nu1 ,I/ Tmnrprrronol Prtrha Hcr inlercrtr include tnth , I and iransprronnl values. ROGER N. WALSH fin1 kamcinlcrsvd in bumsnislicand tranrperwnal prycholo~ ss a rnult ofhis rspcricncc in therapy and meditation. His pemmal and restarch inlercsfi include the nature of prychologiral hcalth. mcditalion. transpcm,nal pry- cholagy and psyrholhcrap)'. and covironmcntnl influences on brain drvclnpmcn~. Hc holds an h1D and PhD. is on thc hc- ully of lhc Ps>chiatry Dcprlment of the Un~vcrsil~ ol Csli- fornia hledirnl School at Irvinr. and rormcrly hcld thr puritiun of IT~~CZC illti<! in Wirth-C<llrs Circus. FRANCES \'AUGHAN h a krn aclivel~ involved wilh hu- manistic and tranrpnonal psycholog! for thc past finrcn yean. Shc is currcnlly in private practirr as a psrholhenpirt in Mill Valley. Colifnrnia. and is prnfpsrclr of psyholagy at ~hc Cali- fornia Instilute of Tmnsremnal Psychology. She is author 01 Awakening Inrui,ion (Douhlcdo?/Anrhor. 19791 and cc-editc,r with Rogcr Walrh a ~ fRqlanrl Tlw EQ~: The. Tronrperrr>nol 1);. rrwnrion in P~rc/~olcKv (Torcher. 1980). Francs war formcrly Prcridenl ofThe Arxrioliun Ior Traosprrwmal Psxcholne and is an cdilor lor the Jo,trrzdl ~~/llumonirric P~wholog~.. thr J~ur- ,loci- and Re- I'i~ion: A Journol o/ Kno~lrd~e ond Conrciournrrr lhr~~rctical implicat~cnr and pr3~lic31 applic3tions oi hum3nirl1r 61. rhrir own rhrorirs of hu,,zu,~ norvre p~ychologisrshorr rhr p o u r of elzwri,g or degmding rhisso,rtz ,rororr. Debasing ~lssunlprionr debwe humun . . beittgs; grner.>as ossu,rrprior!s e.ralr tho,^. IG. W. Allport. 19b41 All psychologies psi! either explicit nr implicil models of lhc pcrson which shape perceplion. organize eapcricnce. and determine melhods of inquiry A Iranspenonal n~odel.like a humanistic model. faxuses on thc human ptenlial fur growth. Itcallll. and well-being. It goes beyond existing models 10 include seli-transcendcncc. and it eniphasizes the centrality ofconscious- ness in shaping experience and enhancing well-being. . . 'Reprinled in 311~r~d form hy pcrn>ission.From Frances Vnuphsn and Rogrr Wakh . Bqvond rbr Ego 7'hr 7'n~rarprrronnI 1)inzenrron in P?u-llrhnlo~~.. Copyright 1980 hy Tnrchcr .- hers. \.' Thc aulhnn wish lo lhnnk Kcn Wilhcr. Jim Bugcntal. John Lei!. Gordon Globus. and Deanr Shapim for thcir crccllcnt discusion and rritirbm 01 this arliclc. 6 Beyond rhe Ego The four major dimensions o f this lranspenonal model o f the person are consciousness. conditioning. personolil!.. and idenlily. Optirnun~ consciuus- ness is viewed a being considcmhly morc expandcd than the usual w;lking swle which lends lo he dcfcnsively cuntracte~l and filled with fanlasies that distort perception. Gr<:,u,lh lakes place when the derensivc conlraction is relaxed and perceplual dislorlion is reduced. Whilc ordinarily trapped hy conditioning. a F n o n can learn lo 1r;tnsccnd lhis conditioning. Personalily is viewed as only one spec1 of heing with which the individual may or ma! not k identilied. The possibility of identifying with consciousness 2s the omtest oi experience rather than with ihe prrsnnality is suggested. Unrecuenized idenlifications and uneaamincd helicfs n~ainlain conslriclions nf idenlily which are laken lor granted. Principles ofpsychutherapy dcrived Tram this rnadcl include working in nn espanded mnlext that recognizes the potenlial value o f iranscenden~al ex- perience. Ps?chodynan~ic issues are included hut may he tranxended. Prr- wnal responsibilily for bolh inlern31 and exlernal experience is enlph:lsized. and techniques include hoth Eostern and Western methods for w<>rling svith ccnsiousness. The pra~.ticeoltherap!.isviewcd as a form ofkarn~a yoga. and the p w e r of rncdelling is stressed. The p a l s oflranspersonal psycholhrr;~py include awakening lo the illusory nature of any limiled identification. The 1r3nspersonal approach is mnipsred In psychoanalysis. analylical psycltol- ogy. behaviorism. existentialism. and hunianistic psychotherapy. THE POWER OF MODELS In recent years there has been an increasing awareness of the power or cognitive models and beliefs toshape our perception ofrealily. Especially when they are implicit. assumed. or unquestioned. these models come to function as self-fulfilling. self-prophetic organizers of experience which modify perception. shape investigation. and suggest areas and methodol- ogies of inquiry. as well as their interpretation (Bandurn. 1978: Maslow, 1971). All psychologies posit either explicit or implicit models in response to the fundamental question : "What is 3 person?". Most ps~chologies arise from the recognition and en~phasis of a specilic are3 or.dimension and tend to perceive and interpret selectively a11 experiences and behavior fron~ that perspective. Such a lixed position:~l stance and interprclalion niny be strongly reinforced by tl~eself-propheticnitlure of ~nodels plus the overdetermined nature of behavior. so that any particular motivation or component tends to enter into (he determina~ion ofn~osl or all behaviors. The danger of such selective self-reinrorcemcnt is that the adherents or any particular viewpoint or theory may conclude that their lindings pro-
14

Beyond the Ego Towards Transpersonal Models of the Person and Psychotherapy

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transpersonal psychology
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Page 1: Beyond the Ego Towards Transpersonal Models of the Person and Psychotherapy

.~ - ~ --ppp----- ~ p p - ~ ~ ~ - - ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~

.

* \\'alsh, R.N., and F. Vaughan. Beyond the ego. -

' REYOND THE EGO: - - -

,., TOWARD TRANSPERSONAL MODELS OF ' ,: THE PERSON AND PSYCHOTHERAPY'

nu1 ,I/ Tmnrprrronol Prtrha Hcr inlercrtr include tnth

, I and iransprronnl values.

ROGER N. WALSH fin1 k a m c i n l c r s v d in bumsnislicand tranrperwnal p rycho lo~ ss a rnult ofhis rspcricncc in therapy and meditation. His pemmal and restarch inlercsfi include the nature of prychologiral hcalth. mcditalion. transpcm,nal pry- cholagy and psyrholhcrap)'. and covironmcntnl influences on brain drvclnpmcn~. Hc holds an h1D and PhD. i s on thc h c - ully of lhc Ps>chiatry Dcprlment of the Un~vcrs i l~ o l Csli- fornia hledirnl School a t Irvinr. and rormcrly hcld thr puritiun of I T ~ ~ C Z C illti<! in Wirth-C<llrs Circus.

FRANCES \'AUGHAN h a k r n aclivel~ involved wilh hu- manistic and tranrpnonal psycholog! for thc past finrcn yean. Shc is currcnlly in private practirr as a psrholhenpirt in Mil l Valley. Colifnrnia. and is prnfpsrclr of psyholagy at ~ h c Cali- fornia Instilute of Tmnsremnal Psychology. She is author 01 Awakening Inrui,ion (Douhlcdo?/Anrhor. 19791 and cc-editc,r with Rogcr Walrh a ~ f Rqlanrl Tlw E Q ~ : The. Tronrperrr>nol 1);. rrwnrion in P ~ r c / ~ o l c K v (Torcher. 1980). Francs war formcrly Prcridenl ofThe Arxrioliun Ior Traosprrwmal Psxcholne and i s an cdilor lor the Jo,trrzdl ~~ / l lumoni r r ic P ~ w h o l o g ~ . . thr J ~ u r -

,loci- and Re- I ' i~ ion: A Journol o/ K n o ~ l r d ~ e ond Conrciournrrr lhr~~rctical implicat~cnr and pr3~lic31 applic3tions o i hum3nirl1r

61. rhrir own rhrorirs of hu,,zu,~ norvre p~ychologisrs horr rhr p o u r of elzwri,g or degmding rhisso,rtz ,rororr. Debasing ~lssunlprionr debwe humun . . beittgs; grner.>as ossu,rrprior!s e.ralr tho,^. IG. W. Allport. 19b41

A l l psychologies p s i ! either explicit nr implici l models of lhc pcrson which shape perceplion. organize eapcricnce. and determine melhods o f inqui ry A Iranspenonal n~odel. l ike a humanistic model. faxuses on thc human p ten l i a l fur growth. Itcallll. and well-being. I t goes beyond existing models 10 include seli-transcendcncc. and i t eniphasizes the centrality ofconscious- ness i n shaping experience and enhancing well-being.

. .

'Reprinled in 311~r~d form hy pcrn>ission. From Frances Vnuphsn and Rogrr Wakh . Bqvond rbr E g o 7'hr 7'n~rarprrronnI 1)inzenrron in P?u-llrhnlo~~.. Copyright 1980 hy Tnrchcr

. - hers. \.' Thc aulhnn wish lo lhnnk Kcn Wilhcr. Jim Bugcntal. John Lei!. Gordon Globus. and

Deanr Shapim for thcir crccllcnt discusion and rritirbm 01 this arliclc.

6 Beyond rhe Ego

The four major dimensions o f this lranspenonal model o f the person are consciousness. conditioning. personolil!.. and idenlily. Opt i rnun~ consciuus- ness is viewed a being considcmhly morc expandcd than the usual w;lking swle which lends l o he dcfcnsively cuntracte~l and filled with fanlasies that distort perception. Gr<:,u,lh lakes place when the derensivc conlraction is relaxed and perceplual dislorlion is reduced. Whilc ordinarily trapped hy conditioning. a F n o n can learn l o 1r;tnsccnd lhis conditioning. Personalily is viewed as only one spec1 o f heing with which the individual may or ma! not k identilied. The possibility o f identifying with consciousness 2s the omtest o i experience rather than with ihe prrsnnality is suggested. Unrecuenized idenlifications and uneaamincd helicfs n~ain la in conslriclions nf idenlily which are laken lor granted.

Principles ofpsychutherapy dcrived Tram this rnadcl include working in nn espanded mnlext that recognizes the potenlial value o f iranscenden~al ex- perience. Ps?chodynan~ic issues are included hut may he tranxended. Prr- wna l responsibilily for bolh inlern31 and exlernal experience is enlph:lsized. and techniques include hoth Eostern and Western methods for w<>r l ing svith ccnsiousness. The pra~.ticeoltherap!.isviewcd as a form o f k a r n ~ a yoga. and the p w e r o f rncdelling is stressed. The p a l s oflranspersonal psycholhrr;~py include awakening lo the illusory nature o f any l imiled identification. The 1r3nspersonal approach is mnipsred In psychoanalysis. analylical psycltol- ogy. behaviorism. existentialism. and hunianistic psychotherapy.

THE POWER OF MODELS

In recent years there has been an increasing awareness of the power or cognit ive models and beliefs toshape o u r perception o f rea l i l y . Especially

when they are impl ic i t . assumed. or unquestioned. these models come to

funct ion as self-fulfilling. self-prophetic organizers of experience wh i ch

modify perception. shape investigation. and suggest areas and methodol-

ogies o f inqui ry . as we l l as their in terpretat ion (Bandurn. 1978: Maslow,

1971).

A l l psychologies posit ei ther expl ic i t or imp l i c i t models in response to the fundamental question : "What is 3 person?". Mos t ps~cho log ies arise

from the recognit ion and en~phas is of a specilic are3 or.dimension and

tend t o perceive and interpret selectively a11 experiences and behavior

fron~ that perspective. Such a l ixed posi t ion:~ l stance a n d in te rprc la l ion

niny be strongly reinforced by t l~esel f -prophet ic n i t lure o f ~ n o d e l s p lus the

overdetermined nature o f behavior. so that any par t icu lar mot iva t ion or component tends t o enter i n t o (he de te rm ina~ ion o f n ~ o s l o r a l l behaviors.

T h e danger of such selective self-reinrorcemcnt is that the adherents o r

any par t icu lar v iewpoint or theory m a y conclude that thei r l ind ings pro-

Page 2: Beyond the Ego Towards Transpersonal Models of the Person and Psychotherapy

. vide exclusive support for their model. They may thus lose sight o f alter- , 11:llive perspectives and interpretations o f phenomena which l ie outside

l l ~ e model. and of the complexity. richness. and overdetermination of ' liulnan psychology.

' hlODELS OF HUMANISTIC A N D I'KANSPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY

. . I-lu~nanistic and transpersonal psychology emerged in recent decades , ~':~rtly in response to the concern that the previous two major Western

~liodels, behaviorism and psychoanalysis, had been limited by such fac-

7" Ion. Especially. i t was felt that they u~ere limited in being derived largely

. l'rom studies of psychopathology; in attempting lo generalize from simple . . ': ,Ill Illore conlplex systems: and in ignoringcerlain areas.concerns. and data ' . relevant to a full study of humans. Neglected areas included certain

central and unique l'eatures o f the human condition such as values, will: :~nd the search for self-actualization and self-transcendence. This neglect

. II:I~ been sometilnes accompanied by inappropriately reductionistic and ~':~thologizing interpretations. Indeed. i t was argued that the psvchoana- Iyliu perspective efl.eclively made i t impossible to study health-o;iented or

' I~e:~lth-moti\,ated behavior except inasmuch as i t was considered 3 de- . Iense. or 31 the very best. a con~promise. with hasic destructive forces. . .l'hus, self-actualization and self-transcendence could not be accorded , v:llidity even though olher psychologies contain detailed descriptions of

.:llleln. Sin~ilarly. previous models allow only for psychotherapy which

. , . essentially aims at adjustment. not self-actualizing or self-transcending '. gr~nvth. As Gordon Allport (Smith 1976) noted. we have "on the psvchol-

t'gy of liberation- nothing." I n fact. Freud's collected works contain over .IIJO references lo neuroris and none to health.

: l'husil wasargued thnl while the behavioral and psychoanalyticmodels . . II:I~ mxde nlajor contributions. they also had certain deleterious enects. I t sliould be noted tllat the recognition o f deliciences represents a necessa?

a n d desirable phase in ihe evolution o f theory. An.,. niodel is necessarily ; liliiited and selective a11d evolution involves the continued recognition of

. . thc I~III~LF and biases o f current models and their replacenlent by more c~~~ilpreliensive ones. Yesterday's niodel becomes a conlponent of today's: \\.Ii:11 was context becomes content, and what was the whole set becomes :II~ elenlent or subset ol'tl~e larger set. Furtliermore. the new model i s not I I . I ~ E . but hopefully a Illore accurate and coniprehensive picture of the I:lrger reality i t attcmpLs to describe.

. 8 Bqvond rhe Ego

Thus, the transpersonal model presented here incorporates ares beyond the usual humanistic view: However. i t is not rhe rrurh, but only a larger. though necessarily still limited. picture. It, in turn? will presumably be replaced h j other models. Unfortunately, with time we usuallyconie to believe our models and to resist their replacement. thus slowing the evo- lutionary process (Kuhn. 1970).

I n addition to the desire to complement and expand the preexisting models. there are several additional factors which facilitated the emer- gence o f humanistic and transpersonal psychology. Several o f them oc- curred within the culture at large. The recognition ofthe inadequacy orthe materialistic dream and the advent of the human polential movement nudged mental health practitioners to reassess their conceptions of motivation and potential. Similarly, the widespread use of psychedelics plus psychedelic research led to a recognition of the signilicance of altered states o f ~mnsciousness. With this, plus the recognition of related phe- nomena such as stale dependent learning and state dependent communi- cation. the door was open for the study of 3 range of consciousness-alter- ing technologies such as meditation and yoga. In addition. certain ofthe Eastern psychologies which had formerly appeared arcane i f not nonsen- sical were becoming appreciated as state-specific technologies designed for the induction of higher states ofconsciousness. This recognition. which follou,ed by several years the surge in puhlic interest in these practices. has only just begun to be widely appreciated by professionals, but has formed one o f the major interests o f transpersonal psychology. I n addition, em- pirical research on such practices as meditation. yoga, biofeedback. and on psychologically healthy individuals. has lent further support to the need for broader interpretations o f the human potential.

What then are the general features of the humanistic and transperson- al psychological models o f the person? Perhaps their most fundamental claim is that our current theories provide only partial pictures o f psycho- logical capacity. Assuch, [hey acknowledge an expanded range of human experience and potential including possibilities o f development of psy- chological growth and well-being far beyond traditionally recognized limits. For the humanistic psychologist this "more" includes self-actuali- mtion while for the transpersonal psychologist i t includes not only self- actuali&tion but a spectrum o f states o f consciousness including true "higher" states and even enlightenment or liberation.

Defining Transpersonal Ps.vchologl;

Transpersonal psychology thus aims at expanding the field o f psycholog- ical inquiry lo include areas o f human experience and behavior asso-

Page 3: Beyond the Ego Towards Transpersonal Models of the Person and Psychotherapy

o:i;lted with extreme health and atell-being. Such i n q u i y includcs such .:!~lljects as altered smtes ofconsciausnes~. peak and plateau experiences. <:If-lransrendence. meditation. yoga and o the r methods lor expanding

' ;qw:lrenes. As such it draws on both Western science a n d Eastern wisdom in an attempt to integrate knowledge iwncerned with utilizing conscious- *less for thefu1fi))menl o ihuman potential. T h e purpose o l th is article is to

,~ ' rovide n theoretical frantcwork for transpersonal psychology and psy- cllotherapy by delineating a tr3nspersonal model o f the person. In this

, ~llodel we shall examine rour major dimensions of our concepts about who :jtrd what we are. namely consciousness, conditioning, personality. and . . l<lentily.

'The term transpersonal was adopted after considerable deliberation lo ~cflect the reports or people practicing various consciousnss disciplines who spokeof experiences o f a n extension o f identity beyond both individ- ~ ~ a l i l y (the personal) and personality. Thus a transpenonal model cannot : .q~rictly be cjlled a model 01 personality since personality is considered only one racet of our psychological nature. Defining transpersonal psy-

'. cllnlogy and therapy is difficult since transpersonal experiences are es- yentially altered states and this raises all the p rob len~s ofslate dependency and cross state communication which Tart ( 1969. 1972, 19753. 1975h) has <liscussed. Since definitions, like models. can be constricting it is useful lo

, consider those for transpersonal psychology as still evolving rather than ' complete. in order to allow for further growth a n d evolution. With these , , c i v e a u in mind. the following definitions are suggested.

'I.ranspemonal psychology is concerned with ihc sludy of oplimum psyche- : lo&ical health and wellbeing. 11 recvgnizes the pulenlial Tor experiencing a

broad range olstates ofconscioune~s. in some of which identity may extend . 'beyond the usual limits of the ego and persanalil).

Transpersonal psychotherapy includes traditional areas and techniques. ndding to therc an interest in Facilitating growth and awareness hcyond tmdiiionally recognized levels 01 health. In so doing, the imFrlance of

. . ~riodifyin~ consciousness is emphasized. and the validity of transpersonal expricnce and idenlily is affirmed.

With the introduction of a varieiy of conscic?usness-altering technol- ogies an increttsing number 01 people, including mental health proles- sionals. a re beginning lo have a range o f transpersonal experiences. Grof

, ' 11975) has provided a useful definition o f transpersonal experiences as ' tlrose in\,r>lving an expansion o f consciousness beyond custonlary cgo

I I

h?undaries and beyond the ordinary limitations ol time and space. In his i

. research with LSD p s c h o < h e r a p ~ ~ r o f noted that all or his suhjecls

10 Bewnd /he Ego

eventually transcended the psychodynamic level and entered iransper- i sons1 realms. This potential may also be achieved wilhoul chrmic3ls e i ihr r spontaneously (hl,islow. 1971: Greeley. 19751. by prac6cing various consciousne-qs disciplines (e.5. medilation and yora. Shapirn Ri Wnlsl~. 1980: WaJsh & \'aughan. 1980. in p r e s \ and in advanced psychotherapy (Bugental. 1978). It seems therefore that such experiences represen1 a n essenlisl nspecr ofhuman nature which must he taken into account in a n y psychological theory that a t t empu lo delineate a model or the whole petson.

Such experiences can he ext ren~ely powerful and hold far-rracl~ing implicaticm.~ for the in(lividua1's identity. relationships. lire stsle. moti- vations. and philosctphy (White. 1973). UnTortunately. i t is jifficult to translate these experiences into a coherent. descriptive. and theoretical framework. especially one satisfying and convincing to those without such experimces~Frank. 1977). With liule empirical data or theor). to provide a firm Coundation. individuals with such experiences may grasp at specula- tive niplanatowsyslenls. either psychologiul. philosr>phical. o r rrligious. I l4onever. ifuridersllnding of this area is to advance. it ma: he nPrrs.s33; lo develop a lwtnblr framework (Popper. 1972). Delineating a transper- son31 model of the person isan attrnlpt a t heginning this prcess .

I A MODEL O F T t l E PERSON

The fhur major dirt~ensions o l th i s model are consciousness. conditioning. personality. and identity. Using these headines. we will sumn~ar ize what seem lo us to represent the hasic lenels of 3 transpersonal n ~ u d e l a n d compare then1 with traditional Western aswmptions.

Co~sciot~s~ress. The transpersonnl model holds consciousness as being a central dimension which provides the basis s n d context for all experience. Traditional Western psychologies have held differing positions with re- gard lo consciousness. These range from behaviorisn~ which prefers to ignore it because of the ditliculty orresearching i t objrctivel?. to psycho- dyn;~mic and humanistic approaches which acknowledge it. hul generally pa). more attention to the conten& than to conscio~isncss per st3 as the context of experience.

A transpersonal model views our usual consciousness as a defensively contracled stale. This usual state is tilled to a rvmarkable and unrecog- nized extent with 3 continuou~( flow 01 largely uncontrollnhle though& a n d fanlades which exert an extraordinarily powerful though unappreciated influence on perception. cognition. a n d behavior. Skilllul self-obsrrvatit>n

Page 4: Beyond the Ego Towards Transpersonal Models of the Person and Psychotherapy

I4'0l.sh & Vurrphon I I I2 Bqrond the Ego 1 inevilahly reveals that our usunl experience is perceptually distorted by Since each state of consciousness reveals its own picture of reality i themntinttnuc. a~r~omalic. and unconscious hlendingnfinpul rrom reality (Wilber, 1977). i t follows that reality as we know i t (and that is the only

. and f a n b y in accordance with our needs and defenses. I n the words of way we know it), i s alsc only relatively real. Put another way then. psy- I .' R~~ ~ ) ~ u (1975): "We are 311 prisoners ofot lr minds. This renliwtion is chmis is attachment to any one reality. 1 :' . the fin1 step on the jot~rnex o f freedom."

Optimum conscirrusnes is viewed as being considerably greater, . and . We grow up u,ith one plane of existence we cal l real. We identify tolally with that rrality asalsolute, and wediscount cx~ericnces that are inconsistent u,ith

potenti;llly avail:thle 21 any time, should the defensive contraction he .

il. . . . !chat Einstein demonstrated in physics is equally lrue of a l l other relaxed. The rundalllental perspective on growth is thereroreoneofletling 3spr ts of the cosmos: a11 reality i s relative. Each reality i s true only within ~o this derensive contrxtion and removins obstacles to the recognition of $%,en limits. I t i s on!). one possible version of the ways things me. There are ;he expandell ever-present pu l rn t i~ l through quieting the mind and re- always multiple versions ofreality. To awaken from any sLg!e rrality i s 10 I

ducino perceptl~al distortion (Ouspensky, 1949: Rainresh. 1975: Ram recognize its relative reality. [Ram Dass. 1978. p. 211. \ ' ~ass,?976. 1977: \'aughan. 1979). ! Thus the reality we perceive reflects our own state of consciousness and

The fundamenla1 task which ~ i v e s the key to msny reali7ations is the silence We Can never explore reality without at the same time exploring ourselves, oflhe mind. . . . 411 kinds ofdiscuurrie:i are madc. in trtrrh. when !he menlol boih because we are, and beause we create, the reality we explore. machinerystops. 2nd ihe fiw i s that ii the pouJer to think is a remarkable gift. Cunditiorr~ng. With regard to conditioning. the transpe&onal perspec- the power nor [ a , illink iseven mnresr. ISntpren~. 1968. p. 381. tive holds that people are vastlv more ensnared and rntraoned in their

The transperson:il perspective holds that n large spectrum of altered states ofcot~sciousness c.xi51. that some are p<~tentinlly tlselul and func- tiollally specific. (i.e. pusse~ing some f~~nctions not nvnilahle in the usu- al stale hut 1:tcking others) 2nd ihat some o f these are true "higher" slates. Higher is here used in Tart's (1973. 19752) sense of possessing a11 the properties and polentinls of lower st:rtes. plus some adilitional ones. Furlhern~rjre, a wide range of literature from a variety of cultures and grnwth diwipliltrs attesls to thr orlainability o f these higher states (De- Rum. 1969: Goleman. 1977.1980; Kwlenu. 1967: Riordun. 1975).Onthe

r 1

other hand. the tr:lditional Western vie!\; holds that only a limited range of st;~tes exist (e.g.. nJakinp. dreaming, intt~xic~tion, deleriurnt. Furtherntore. ,

nearly all altered states 3rr seen as detrimental and "normality" isconsid- j ered optin~al. I

Vien*ing our usual state from an exp~nded context resulfs in some unexpected in1plic;ttions. The tradition31 model defines psychosis as a distor~ed perception o f reality which does not recognize the distnrtion. From the perspecti\.e ofthis nlultiple sl:ltes model our usual state f i l s this

. . definition. being suhoptinlal. providing 3 distortcd perception o f reaility. and failing to rervgnize that distortion. Indeed. any one state of con- sciousness i s necess:~rily limited and o n l ~ rrl3li\,ely real and hencc from the hrouder perspective psychusis might hc delined as 311;rch[nenl lo, or

! I

heing 1r:lpprd in. any single state t ~ f consciousness (Rnm Dass. 1977. i

1978). i i

a a

conditioning than they appreciate. hut that rreedom from this condition- ing i s possible (Coleman. 1977). The aim o f transpersonal psychotherapy is esentially the extraction of awareness from this conditi~ned tyranny o f the mind. This is described in more detail i n thesection on identity.

One form or conditioning which Eastern disciplines have examined in dek i l i s attachment. Attachment is closely associated with desire and signifies that nonfulfillment o f the desire will result in pain. Atlachment therefore plays 3 central role in the causation ofsuffering. and letting go of attachment i s central to its cessation ~Buddhagosa 1923; Guenthrr, 1976).

whenever there is auschment .4srrinlion with i t Bring endless misery. [Camppa (Ram 035s. 1978))

Whenever we are st i l l atrachcd. we arc stil l possessed: and $hen one is possessed. i t means the existence of something stronger than oneself [Jung. 19h2. p. l 14.)

Allachment is not limited to external objects or persons. I n addition to the familiar forms o f strachment to material posses$ions. special relation- ships and the prevailing status quo, there may be equally strong attach- mentr to a particular self-image, a pattern or hehavior or a psychological prmss. Among the strongest attachments noted in the consciousness disciplines are those to suflering and to unworthiness. Insofar as we be- lieve that our identity is derived from our roles, our problems, our rela-

Page 5: Beyond the Ego Towards Transpersonal Models of the Person and Psychotherapy

: !is,~iships, or the contents of. consciousness, attachment is reinforced by ' ;li.ar for personal survival. "If1 give up my attachmenu, whoand what will

I he?' Personuli~,~. Personality has been accorded a central place in most

previous psychologies and indeed many psychological theories hold lhat a pmn is hk o r her personality. lnterestin~ly enough. themost common title given to books on psychological health and well-being has been "The I-lealthj Personality" (e.g. Chiang & h l ~ l o w ~ 1969). Health has usually heen viewed as primarily involving a modification of personality. From a transpersonal however. personality is accorded relatively less ilnponance. Rather, it is seen as only one aspect of being with which the 1 individual may, but does not have to. identify. Health is secn as primarily involving a shin from exclusive identification with personality rather than o modification of it.

. Likewise the personal drama or stor). which each person has to tell ' . n b u l him or hefiell'is also seen in a different perspective. According to

. . Fsdiman (1979). personal dramas are an unnecessar). luxuff and interfere with full functioning. They are part of our emotional baegage, and it is ,

. '. ~ ~ s u a l l y beneficial for a person to pain some detachmenl or disidentifica- tion from his or her dramas. a s well as from the personal d r a m s o fo then . fdrnfirr. Identity is seen a s a crucial conczpt and is conceptually ex-

tended beyond traditional Western limits. Psychodynamic theories have . discussed identification with external objects defining it as an unconscious

process in which the individual becomes like or reels the same as some- , thingorsomeoneelse(Brenner. 1974). Transpersonal and €%stern psychol-

ogies recoyizc external idendlication but maintain chat identification ; with internal (intrapsychic) phenomena and processes is even more sig- i ~~i l icant . Here identification is defined as the process by which something '

: " is experienced as selC Furthermore. this type of identification goes unrec- 1 ognized by nlost or us including psychologists, therapists, and behavioral

. scientis~s, because we are all so involved in it. That is. while we ma)' ask "Who am I?.', consensually validated identifications tend to go unrecog-

' nized because thsy are not called into question. Indeed any attempt to

i question them mily meet with considerable resistance from olhen. !

. Attempts to =wake before our lime are onen punished, especially by those 1 . who love us mmt. Bccause they, bless them, are asleep. They think anyonc , ,. . , . r h o rakes up.or. . r e l i e s h a t a t is a I b r e is a r a m i s i

crazy. ILaing. 1971, p. 821. i i

The process of disidentilication has far-reaching implications. The ' 1

Bqrvnd {he Ego

identification of awareness with mental content renders the individual unconscious of the broader cconte.xt of consciousness which holds lhis content. When awareness identifies with mental content this content be- comes the context from which all other n~enta l content and experience are viewed. Thus the content-become-context now interprets other content. and determines meaning. perception, belief. rnolivation. and behavior. all in a manner which is consisten1 with and reinlbrces this contest. Further- more. the context s e h in motion psychological processes which also rein- force i t (Erhard. 1977. 1980: Walsh. 1978).

For example, if a thought. "l'm scared." arises and this thought is ob- served and seen to he what i t is (i.e.. just another thought). [hen i t exerts liltle influence. However, if it is identified urith. then the rezlity at that moment is that the individual is scared and is likely to generate and '

identify with a whole series of feafiul thoughts and emotions. to interpret nondescript feelings as fear. to perceive the world as frightening. and toact in a. fearful manner (Kicsler. 1973). Thus identification sets in train a selr-rulfilling, self-prophetic process in which experience and psychologi- w l processes validate the reality of that with whikh i t was identified. Far the person identitied with the thought "I'm scared'' everything srems to prove the reality and validiiy of his o r her rear. Remember that with identification the person is unaware ofthe. fact that their perception stems from a thought "I'nl scared". This thought is now not son~ething which can be seen, rather i t is that from which i v e v t h i n g else is seen and interpreted. Awarrness. which would be trmulscendent and positi~lnlcss. has now been cc7nstricted to viewing the world from a single self-validating perspective. This is similar t o the process which oc~.urs with unrecognized models 3s described earlier.

We are donlinalrd by everyhing with which our sell bwt,me.c iden~ificd. We can dominate and control everylhing from which we dis idcn~if~ (Assagioli. 1965).

As long as we are identified with an object. that is bondage. lWri W u Wci. IY7UI.

I t may be that though& and beliefs constilule the operators o r al- gorithms which collslrucl, mediate, guide. and maintain the identili- catory constriction ofconsciousners and act 3s limiting models of who we believe ourselves to be. Assuch they must be opened to review in order to allow growth. It may he lhat beliefs are adopted 3s strategic, defensive decisions ilh~7ut who and what we must be in order to survive and function optimally.

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16 Beyond !he Ego

When i t is ren~embered that lhe mind is usl~ally lilled with thoughts with which we are unwittingly identified. i t becon~es apparent that our usual state of consciousness is one in which we are. quitc literally. hypnotized. As in any hypnotic stale, there need not be 3ny recognition of the trance

'. : ~ n d its attendant constriction of awareness. or m e m o 7 o r the sense of r

~denti ty prior to hypnosis. While in the trance. we think we are the . thoughts with which we are identified! Put another way. those thoughts

l'rom which we have not yetdisidentified create our state ofconsciousness. identity. and reality!

\ire are what we think. . A11 t lmt wearcarises wilh our ~houghls.

\L1itl> our ~houghts we makc the world. (Byom. 1976. p. 31.

\\Is uphold the world w i ~ h our internal dialogue. [Castancda. 19741.

T h e general mechanisms underlying the hypnotic nature of our usual state are pruhahlysi~nilnr for a l lof us. although the contenls between

individuals and between c u l ~ u r s . Within culture% common beliefs and reililies tend to he powerfully inculcated and shared (Elgin. 1980: Wilber.

. 1977).

Whal is unconscious and what is conscious depends . . . on the slructure of scrietyand on !he pauernsof reclines and thoughls i t produces.. . .The efl'cct

' of snxiet). is not only to funnel ficlions into our conxiousness. but also lo prevenl awareness of realily. . . . Eve? sociery . . . derermines [he forms of awarenrsr. This swtem works. a.. it were. like a s u d a l ! ~ condi~ioned filler: e n ~ r i e n c e cannot enter awareness unless i t can penetrate the filter [Fromm. 1970. pp. 98-99, IWI:

From this perspective ego appears to come into existence as soon as iswarrness identities with thought. to represent the constellation ol' thoughu with which we tend to identify and to he fundamentally an illusion produced by lintited awnrenes . This is a sobering thought both in i 6 v r sona l implic;tti<>ns and in as much as our traditional Western p s y chologies are ego psychologies and hence are studies oiillusion.

& C V O I I ~ l d t~ i~ ! i~ ic~ i~ iu /~ /I

'l.l~e t:lsli of awakening can 111115 he. viewed f r ~ m one perspective as 3

progressive disidentilication from mental ctmtent in general and lhoughlc , in parlicular.'l'his isclearly evident in procticessuch as insight medilation

where the sludent is trained to ohser\'e and identify a11 mental content rapidly and precisely (Goldstein. 1976: Goleman 1977). For most? this is 3.

slow arduous process in which a gradual refinement o f perception resulrs in a peeling away of awareness from successively more subtle layers o f identification (Walsh. 1977. 1978: Wilber. 1980a: 1980bl. This may be viewed as a process of dehypnosis (Walsh. 1979).

Finally, awareness n o longer identifies exclusively with anything. This represen6 a r a d i a l and enduring shift in consciousnesi known by various names such as enlightenment o r liberation. Since there is n o longer any exclusive identification with anything the me-not m e dichoromy is transcended and such persons experience themselves as being both noth- ing and evevlhing. They are both pure awareness (no thing) and the entire universe (everything). Being identified with both n o location and all locations. nowhere and everywhere. they experience having transcended space i n d positionality.

A similar transcendence occurs for lime. The mind is in constant flux. AI the most sensitive levels ofperceplion arfainable by perceptual training such as meditation, all mind, and hence the whole phenomenal universe, is seen to be in continuous motion and change, with each object of awareness arising out of. void into awareness and disappearing again within minute fractions of a second (Buddhagosa. 1923; Goldstein. 1976: Goleman, 1977). This is the fundamental recognition of the Buddhist teaching of impermanence (i.e.. that everything changes. nothing remains the same) (Kornlield. 1977: Snyadaw. 1976). This realiwtion'can become one of the major motivating forces Tor advanced meditators to transcend aU mental processes and attain the changeless unconditioned state of nirvana:

\ , In this final state of pure awareness. since there is no longer identifica- tion with mind, there is n o sense of being identified with change. Since lime is a function ofchange this results in m experience o f being oYlside.

\ ! or transcendent to, time. This is experienced a s eternity, the eternity of the I unchanging now, and from this perspective time is perceived as an illusor).

, product of identification.

Time is of your own making I Its clock ticks i n your hcad.

The moment you stop thought Time lor, slops dead /Frank. 1976. p. 45).

I

i Mental contents and processes occur largely as a result of conditioning.

) a fzcr recognized by both Western and nonwestem psychologies. Iden- tification with these contents resulls in the experience of a self whichis ont trolled by conditioning. Once their identification is transcended lhen so are the elTects of conditioning.

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Walsh & Vaughan 17 18 Bqmnd [he Ego

Conditioned thoughts and emotions still pass through the mind?.but .. ' without identification with them awareness may now be experienced as

unconditioned. The experience of unconditioned pure awareness i s apparently a bliss-

ful one. described in the Hindu tradition as comprised of sat-chit-ananda: . awnrenm. being, and bliss. Without identification with painful thoughts

and emotions there is no experience of suffering. Thus from this perspec- . live the cause of suffering is identification.

Freed of unconscious distorting and limiting identifications and con- texts, awareness i s now capable of clear, accurate perception. Hence in Tibetan Buddhism i t i s called a "crystal mirror" because of its clear. faithful reflection of reality. Furthermore. with no exclusive ideniification, mirror and that which i t perceives, subject and object, are perceived as one 1 and the same thing. Awareness now perceives itself as being that which i t , formerly looked at. for the observer or ego. which was an illusory product I

' of identification. i s no longer experienced as a separate entity. Furthermore. since a person in this state experiences him or herself as

, being pure awareness at one with everything yet being no thing, each . . person also experiences him or herself as being exactly the same as, or

I' identical with. every other person. From this state o f consciousness the words of the mystics proclaiming "we are one" make perfect sense as

'

literal experience. With nothing except one's self in existence the thought of harming "others" makes no sense whauoever. and i t is said that such thoughts may not even occur (Coleman. 1977). Rather, the natural ex- pressions of this state toward others are love and compassion. Descrip- I

. lions o f the experience ofthis state make i t clear that these experiences are .: known tb most of us only in those moments of transcendent insight

afforded by peak experiences (,Ma.~low. 1971). Thus. our capacity for i, understanding i s limited by the constrain& o f cross slate communication 1 and lack of direct experience. Hence i t i s apparent that descriptions of

., these states may be partially incomprehensible to the rest of us and may be uninterprelable from the frameworks o f traditional psychology. I t then

. becomes very easy to dismiss prematurely such phenomena as nonsensical ., or even pathological. a mistake made even by some of the most out- . , standing Western mental health professionals (e.g. Freud's 119621 dismis- : sal of oceanic experience as reflective of infantile helplessness. Alex- , : . . ander's (19311 description of meditation as self-induced catatonia. The i I : Group for the Advancement of Psychiatf')"~ [I9761 description of nlystics I

as exhibiting borderline psychosis). However, the trmspersonal model I

attempts to provide for the first time, a psychological framework capable i o f con~prehending religious experiences and disciplines. I

. 'In as much as people in the state of consciousness known as enlighten- ment experience themselves as being pure auJareness, everything and nothing. the entire universe. unconditioned. unchanging. eternal. and one with a11 others. they also experience.themselves as being one with God. Here. God does not imply some person or thing "out there:' but rsther represents the direct experience of being all thatexists. I n the utmost depths of the human psyche. when all limiting identifications have been dropped. awareness experiences no limits to identity and directly expe- riences itself as that which is beyond limits of time or space. that whicll humanity has traditionally called God.

To me, Gcd is a u.nrd used to p i n t to our inehble suhjec~ivit!.. IU the unimaginable poiential which lies wiihin each ef us IRugent31. 1978, p. 1391.

THE hlODEL OF PSYCHOTHERAPY

From this model derive a number of principles of transpersonal therapy. However. before beginning a discussion o f these principles i t may be wonh considering the importance o f a transpersonal penpicrive for ;her- apeutic work. In acknowledging 3 wider spectrum and greater potential for psychological well-being and transcendence than do traditional ap- proaches. i t affords individuals whoare reddy to do so the opp~,rtunity or working in an expanded context. Since i t recognizes the inlportance of transpersonal/ transcendental experiences lhese can be treated appro- priately asvaluable opportunities for growth. Individuals and systems which do not recognize the possibility o f transpersonal awareness tend to interpret such experiences from an inappropriate and pathologizing per- spective. This can easily lead to pathologizing interpretations and dam- aging suppression for healthy individuals who are beginning to move into the transpersonal realm.

Thegoalsoftranspersonal therapy include both traditional bnessuch 3s syn~ptom relief and behavior change. and uJhere appropriate. optinla1 work at the trimpersonal level. This may include the provision o f an adequate conceptual framework for handling trmspersonal experiences: informalion on psychological potential: and the importance of assuming resp>nsibility.'not only for one's behavior. but also for one's experience. I n addition lo working through psychodynamic prwesses the therapist aims toassist theclient in disidentifying from and transcending psvchodynunlic issues. Thus the therapist niay instruct the client in the possihi~ity of using al l life experience 3s 3 part of learning (karma yoga). the potentials of altered states and the limitations and dangers of attachment to lixed

Page 8: Beyond the Ego Towards Transpersonal Models of the Person and Psychotherapy

models and expectations. The therapist may also intend that the thera- peutic encounter be used as a liarma yoga to optimize growth of both participanfi in a mutually facilitating manner. These goals in turn facili- tate the aim of enabling the client to extract awareness from the tyranny of cwnditiorling.

Transpersonal therapeutic techniques include both Eastern and Wes!- ern methods for working with consciousness. Various forms of meditation .

and yoga may be added to more conventional techniques. The prima? , aim ifthese tools is not somuch to change experienceperse. as to alter the I

individual's relationship to i t by heightened mindful awareness coupled i with a willingness to allow i t to be as i t is. I

Two features ofthe psychotherapeutic relationship that deserve special :

mention arc modeling and karma yoga. The importance o f modeling has , recently been clearly recognized in the behavior modification literature. : Recent infcrmation on the potency of modeling suggests that other ther- !

apies may have underestimated its power (Bandura. 1969. 1977a. 1977b). :

Since nlodeling may be a universal. although sometimes unwitting. ther- apeutic process. what i s distinguishing i s what the therapist models rather than the process itself. For the transpersonal orientation this is closelj linked to the concept ofkarma yoga. which i s the yoga ofsenrice to others. ! Psychoanalytic nlodels of psychotherapy portrayed ideal therapists as '

those who minimized amective involvement, oRered themselves as blank projection screens. and put aside their own feelings. reactions, and per- sqnal develapment for the benefit o f the client. The humanistic existential model. on the other hand. emphasized the importance of participation by therapists in the therapeutic relationship. opening themselves fully to the client's experience and to their own reactions (Bugental. 1965. 1976).

To this participation the transpersonal orientation has added the per- I spective that the therapist may benefit both the client and him or herself i best by using the relationship to optinlize his or her own transpersonal ! 1 growth thrcugh consciously serving the client. This ma! take many forms i and nlay be indistinguishable externally from other therapeutic ap- I proaches. but is aI\vays performed within the context ofoptinlizinggrowth through service. Indeed. working with one's own consciousness becomes a

I i primary responsibility. The growth of one participant in the therapeutic :

relationship is seen as facilitating that of the other, and by holding the I rel:~tionship in the context of service and karma yoga. the therapist ; attempts to provide h ~ h an optimal environment and model for theclient. 1 Where the ~ l icnp is t is consciously serving the client there is no hiermchi- I cat sutus accorded lo being a therapist. Rather the situation i s held as one i

i 1 I

20 Beyond rhe Ego

in which both therapist and client are working on themselves, each in the way that i s most appropriate to their particular developmenl. The thera- pist's openness and willingness to use the therapeutic process to maximize his or her own growth and commitment to service i s viewed as the optimal modeling that can be provided for the client.

The means by which the therapist transforms the process into a karma yoga are several. First and perhaps most importantly i s simply the inlen- tion to do so. Coupled with this is the intention to remain as aware and meditatively mindful as possible at all times.

I n some traditional approaches the therapist is portrayed as what is called a "competent model" who i s fully competent at that which he or she i s trying to teach. However, the transpersonal therapist may share his or her own unresolved questions where appropriate and attempts to be as transparent as possible. The karma yogic therapist thereby combines the "competent" and the so-called "learning to cope" varieties o f modeling. Interestingly, studies of modeling have demonstrated that the learning to cope model is frequently more efective than the competent one (Bandura. 1969. 1977b).

Such mcdeling provides a high degree o f mutuality between therapist and client since both share a growth-oriented inlention for lherapy, are less hierarchically distanced. and function as teachers for one another. Indeed, the therapist may enhance this process by assuming responsibility for interacting with clients.working at this level with complete openness and honesty, asking the client to engage in a mutually facililating two-way feedback of any apparently withheld or incorrect communication. Such an approach demands a strong commitment by the therapist 1'0 hear the truth about him or herself, and i t i s this which may possibly provide the opti- mum modeling for the client.

Transpersonal psychotherapy can be distinguished from other a p proaches on several dimensions which will be discussed below. However i t should be noted that such comparisons are not without dangers. AU therapies share considerable areas o f commonality and any comparison risks magnifying and solidifying differences without acknowledging the overlap. Then too. there are often major discrepancies between therapy as i t i s idealistically described and as i t i s practiced. Furthermore, therapisls o f dimerent theoretical persuasions will perceive the same therapeutic interaction dilferently. Finally. biases are hard to eradicate no matter how objective aulllors attempt to be. These caveats should be horn in mind during the following discussion.

Page 9: Beyond the Ego Towards Transpersonal Models of the Person and Psychotherapy

lVulsh & Voughon 2 1

A transpersonal approach may include traditional aims while inmr- prat ing further goals derived from the transprsonal model o f con- sciousness discussed earlier. These include increasing awareness or con- sciousness and may include experience of altered states with the ulliniate aim of auaining a true "higher" state. For example, perception and con- centration may be trained as in meditation with the individual learning to observe niental content rather than attempting to change it. The appro- priate aphorism might be "watch everything. do nothing!" As Perls ( 1969: p. 16) observed. "Awarenessperse-by and of itself-can be curative." In addition to watching mental content the individual also aims to disidentify from it, a prwess which explores the more fundamenhl question of not

I only who am 1. hut whnr am I?

1 Thus, for example a client presenting to a traditional therapist com- i

plaining of feeling inadequate. incapable. inferior. would be viewed as having low self-esteem, poor ego strength. or negative self-attributions according to the therapist's particular discipline. If a psychodynamic a p proach were employed. the therapist might attempt to determine the origin of these thoughts, whereas a behavioral approach might attempt to

. , modify them directly by environmental change, diRerential reinforce- ment. or cognitive approaches (Thorensen & Mahoney. 1974: Rimm & Master. 1975). Whatever the approach. !he etl'ective aim would be to , modify the client's belief and experience about m>har [tpe ofperson he or she is. A transpersonal therapist, on the other hand. might use these

, approaches but would also recognize that the problem represented an ,example of identilication with negative thoughts and emotions. I n addi- tion, this problem would be viewed as only one example o f the many types of identification with which the client was unwittingly involved. The '

distinguishing feature o f the particular identification would be merely that i i t mused discomfort of clinical proportions. Thus. if the transpersonal 1 therapist chose to eniploy a meditative approach. this would involve I training awareness with the aim o f disidentifying from all thoughts, thus !

. . resulting in the client's having not only a ditl'erent belief ahout ,rho/ [tpeo/ person he or she was, but an alteration in the more fundamental percep tion of u:hur he or she was. The relative extent to which traditional and

, . nontraditional techniques were employed would with the individual client. However, the goals of meditation and transpersonal approaches extend beyond those of traditional Western psychotherapy.

. , For example, the transpersonal model suggests that ego identification i s illusory, "only 3 dream." In the West. when this illusion i s mistaken for

I

22 Bevond the Ego

reality. the therapist may help prevent the dream from becoming a nightmare. but a transpersonal approach to con~c io~~ness is aimed at awakening (Wilber, 1977).

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOTHERAPY

The expanded version ~Tpsychology which the transpersonal perspective wishes to otl'er aims at an integration of various \\'estein approaches with those o f the East. In The Specrrrrrrr o/Corrscioualess. Wilber (1977) has i distinguished three primary levels of consciousness? namely the ego, the , existential, and the level of hlind of pure nondualistic consciousness. The ego level concerns the roles, self-images, and the analyiical aspects o f our mind with which we usually identify. The existential. on the other hand. concerns our basic sense of existence. the meaning o f life. confrontation am

with death and aloneness, and the central experience of being-in-the- world. These two levels together constitute our identity as separate. self- existent individuals. and i t is with these levels that most Western therapia are wncerned. assuming that people are condemned by their very exis- tence to live out their lives as an isolated. alienated individual. inherently and permanently separated from the rest o f the universe. Such approach& aim at strengthening the ego.

Beyond the ego and existential levels is the level ofuh1ind" in which the I

individual experiences him or herself as pure consciousness. having let go i of a l l exclusive identitication. and transcended the me: not me dichotomy. ,

resulting in a sense of unity will1 the cusmos. Froni this perspective the '

other levels are seen as illusions of identification n11d are accorded less I importance (Vaughan. 1977; Wilber. 1977: 1979, 1980a. 19SOb). This process of re-evaluating onestate of consciousness froni a new state is called subrationing (Deutsch. 1969). I

h u h therapeutic approach may conlribute to health and well-beilig in its own way at i t s own level. \\'hat i s appropriate at one stage or in one situation may not be apprc~priltle a t another. Dilferent approaches are simply addressed to ditTerent levels and dimensions of consciousness and growth. Idcally the transpersonal recognizes [he potential uf al l levels and makes optinium use of the contributions of both East and West to inter- vene at the appropriate level.

The following is analtempt lo compare the transpersonal with the nla- ,

jor Western traditions of psychoanalysis, analytical psschology. behav- : iorism, existential and humanistic psychology.

Page 10: Beyond the Ego Towards Transpersonal Models of the Person and Psychotherapy

IValsl~ & Vaughan 23 1 24 Bqyond rhe Ego

Classical Ps~choono!~~s;s

I n psychoanalysis human beings are presumed to be incessantly locked in mental conflict which can be reduced but never fully resolved (Brenner, 1974). The individual must therefore constantly guard against and control 1hi.s cilnflict. A strong ego, the mediating factor betuJeen an irrational id and an over-controlling superego, is considered the hallmark of health, which is defined by default as the absence of pathology. This contrasts markedly with the transpersonal perspective in which the ego i s consid- ered as an illusory product o f perceptual distortion and identification. There is no quarrel with the premise that 3 strong, healthy ego can be an asset in meeting the demands o f life, or even that i t may be a necessary prelude for more advanced work. but the transpersonal concept of health goes beyond belief in ego development as the summit o f mental health. Thus, while the conflicts of the ego may indeed be unresolvable, they are transcendable via an expansion o f identity beyond the ego to awareness itself. Just as from a psychoanalytic perspective the superego i s recognized as an intrapsychic entity with which the individual may. but does not have to. identiry, so from the transpersonal perspective the ego i s viewed simi- larly. Such a shift in identity has the eRect ofgreatly reducing the power o f ego demands which can now be viewed with greater detachment. Ulti- nlately the disidentilication from ego and the discovery o f one's own true nature may be considered tantamount to liberation or awakening.

Ann!rric(~l Psscl~ologr

Of a11 the schools which have developed and departed from Freud's orig- inal work. the depth psychology of Carl Jung has heen more concerned with transpersonal levels of experience than any other.

The deep exploration of the psyche in Jungian work extends beyond both the ego and existential levels to deal with archetypes and the collec- tive unconscious. Jung himself was the first Western psychotherapist to affirnm the importance of transpersonal experience for mental health. He wrote that the main thrust of his work was not the treatment ofneurosis, but the approach to the numinous dinlensions ofexperience: ". . . the fact is that the approach to the nun~inous is the real therapy and inasmuch as you attain to the numinous experiences you are released from the curse of pathology IJunp. 1973. p. 3771."

Depth psychology recognizes that the psyche . . has within i t the capacity for self-healing and self-realimtion. but Jungian work remains predom- inantly concerned with the contenlr of consciousness rather than with

consciousness itself as the context of all experience. Thus consciousness is experienced only in relation lo its objects. I t therefore remains 31 a dual- istic level and does not encompass the potential transcendence o f sub- jecl-objectdualism. Analytical psychology values the mythical dinlension ofexperience. such as i n the imagery ofdreams and active imagination as a pou~erful therapeutic agent. However, i t stops short of valuing the direct imageless awareness attained in the practice of some meditative disci- plines.

I Brhaviorisn~

The delining characteristic of behaviorism is i t s insistence on the mea- sureability and verification of behavior and behavior change (Bandura. 1969. 1977a; Rimm & Masters, 1975). By careful n~ethodical empirically based growth i t hasdeveloped a technology which is often highly etTective in the treatmentofdelimited behavioral problems. Indeed, i t must be recog- nized that behavior modification stands alone among the literally hun- dredsoftherapies in having clearly demonstrated ilseKecliveness (Karau. 1977;ParliiK. 1975;).

However. its strength may also represent its weakness. The rigid de- mand for measurement of observable behavior has tended to remove subjective experience from consideration. Such dimensions as conscious- ness, and until recently. even thoughts and feelings. have been ignored. I t is thus len unable lo encompass some of the most central aspects o f the human condition and h3s little to say about optimizing positive health and well-being. Thus. i t has largely been limited to the treatment o r pathol-

i og id with clearly defined overt behavioral characteristics. At the present time. however. a niajor shift is becoming apparent.

Cognition and cognitive mediation of behavior are being increasingly investigated, resulting in the recognimble field ofcognitive behavior mn-

1 dification (hlahoney. 1974). Self-mntrol is being increasingly emphasized i and self-efficacy has been advanced as a major n~ediator o f therapeutic

change (Bandura. 19773; Thorensen & Mahoney. 1974). hlany transper- sonal techniques w n readily be viewed from within a behavior modifica- tion framework. For example. a variety o f meditations which aim to enhance feelings o f love and then use these feelinp to inhibit negative

! emotions such 3s anger are clearly based on the principle o f reciprwal ! inhibition which behaviorists use m replace anxiety with relaxation.

Buddha gave explicit instructions for such techniques (Buddhagosa. 1923). suggesting that some of the principles o f this discipline were noted over two thousand years ago.

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Similarly transpersonalists have recognized the importance o f modeling and behaviorists have amassed 3 signiticant body o f research data con- cerning it. There is'. however. a major difference concerning the subtlety o f the behavior and attitudes which are modeled. Behaviorism has con- cerned itself primarily with relatively gross. easily measured behaviors. whereas the transpe~sonalisls have been interested in more subtle stales. attitudes, experiences. and behaviors.

The field of transpersonal psychotherapy needs some of the behavior- ists' rigor in empirical testing and validation of many current assumptions and practices. hluch work remains to be done in this area.

The distinctions between humanistic and transpersonal psychot'herapy are lrrc apparent at first glance. Both are growth-oriented models concerned as much with health as pathology. and both are holistic (i.e.? they attempt to deal with the whole person).

However the cent r l concepts o f health are dimerent. From a humanistic shndpoint. the healthy individual i s self-actualizing, and humanistic therapy addresses itself predominantly to the ego and existential levels. The development of personalily and the achievement o f ego goals are central, whereas from 3 transpersonal perspective these are accorded less in~portance and may sometimes be seen as obstructions to transpersonal realization. Here the human capacity for self-transcendence beyond self-actualiz3tion i s brought into perspective (Maslow. 1971; Roberts, 19781.

Humanistic psychologists may not be interested in exploring transper- sonal experiences although some have clearly done so. Transpersonal therapists might be expected to have some first-hand experience of such states in order to work elfectively with those who seek guidance in dealing with them. When therapis& do not have such first hand knowledge. they may unurillingly invalidate their clients' experience (Grof. 1975).

The existential approach converges with the transpersonal and humanistic i n its concern with the search for meaning and purpose. the confrontation of death and aloneness, the necessity o f choice' and responsibility, and the demandsofauthenlicity (~ugental~~l965.1976. 1978). Itsupporls theview' that we create our reality by our beliefs. For example. freedom becomes real when we believe in it. We have to know that we can have i t before we a n begin to exercise it. Thesame is true oflove and other values which we

26 BejonJ rhe Ego

can choose to make real for oursel\.es. If we do not believe in the reality of l o ~ e i t i s unlikely that we will experience it. By Facing these questions we can conle to terms with them from an existent~al perspec~ive. but more than this. we can penetrate behind the mask ofour separateand alienated individuality to experience the underlying unity and interconnectedness oral1 life. The e.xperience ol'l'reedonl, with a11 ils paradoxes. and the raw experience of being-in-the-wurld which the existentialis6 portray. can open the way for the personal trar~slbrrnation which leads to transcen- dence. The existentialist. however. may remain locked in his or her se- parate ego-detined identity and fail lo make the leap beyond dualistic lino\vlrdge into the direc~ intuitive knowing and expansion ol'cunscious- ness which charactel i za tra~~spersonal esperience.

In existentialis~n we see a rellection of the lirst Voble Truth 01' Bud- dhism. namely that a11 life is imbued with sun'ering. Caught in a 110 exit situation the individual struggles continuously to conliont and reconcile life with its apparent inevitabilities. However, the Buddha went l'urther and pointed the way out ofthis dile~rlma in the remaining three truths, in which he noted that:

(o) The cause of all sull'eril~g i s attach~nent. (h ) The reliefol'suHering comes l r o ~ ~ l the cessation of artachment. (c) The cessatiun of attuchn~ent comes from ibllowing the right-lbld

path, a prrsmipUon for ethical living and mental training aimed at attaining full enlighrennlent. This path thus leads directly to the trmspersonal realm beyond the ego

' and existential levels.

LIMITATIONS OF TRANSPERSONAL tlSYCHOLOGY A N D PSYCHOTHERAPY

If the preceding sections represent descriptiuns ol'transpersonal psychol- ogy arid psychotherapy. or at least what thcy seek to become. what then are the facto~s which currently limit this field? I

First. there i s clearly an i~ladequate empirical foundation. Many o r the I concerl~s of the trmspersonal therapist lie outside the range of interest. competence. and investigation of most researchers. 'lhus n~any assump- i

I tions. though experientially satislj.il~g. remain experimentally ul~tested. 1 There has been an understandable but regrettable rendency to think that if 1 cxperinie~~ters are not interested in this area then that is their problem. But I

if the transpersol~al i s truly to be all effective synthesisol. hstern wisdo~n I and Western science. then its practitioners need to do all they can to 1

i

Page 12: Beyond the Ego Towards Transpersonal Models of the Person and Psychotherapy

ensure that their work is indeed subjected to careful scientilicscrutiny. The history of psychotherapy is filled with partisan assumptions and claims of superiority which have remained intact o n l y a s long 3s they remained unexamined (Karasu. 1977; Luborsky, Singer. Br Luborsky. 1975). While there is a growing body of research o n meditation, which on the whole is

' I supportive (Shapiro. 1980: Shapiro & Walsh. 1980; Walsh, 1979). few ocher transpersonal areas hace been examined closely.

This r a i s s the interesting question of the applicability o f traditional mechanistic scientific paradigms lo the investigation of transpersonal phenomena (Wilber, 1979. 198Ob. 1980~) . The necessity for novel a p . proaches which are less interfering, more sensitive to subjective states, and involve the experimenter as 9 trained panicipant-observer has been fre- quently recognized but little used. TO date the transpersonal has not been widely integrated u.ith other Western psychologies and therapies: but

. . -. . hopefully increased knowledge will correct this situation. To anyone who has explored the transpersonal realms in depth it is

apparent that intellectual comprehension demands an experiential roun- ' dation (Deiliman. 1977: Rajneesh. 197.5: Ram Dass, 1977). Experiential

, . , howledge is clearly a limitillg factor for conceptual understanding. In- deed, it is n e c e ~ s a ~ t o have n~ul t ip le r.~perienrial recognitions of this fact

. . before iu power and implications can really be appreciated. Failure to ': -. appreciate this has led to countless misunderstandings, discounting. and

' superficial and pathologizing interpretation of the transpersonal. Even the most highly intellectuallu sophisticated but experientially naive mental

'.. health prnctitioners mav h a k t Such errors. as was shown bythe Group for I Advancement of ~sychiatrv's report on hlysticism and ~ s y c h i a t 6 ( 1976). ,

Both therapisls and investigators need to be aware of this and to undertake :

their own personal experiential work. Since the transpersonal realm a n d . I potential for growth are so vast, far exceeding the explorations of most of I

us. i t is probably safe to say that the limits of our personal growth repre- '

sent one of the major limiting factors for this field. Transpersonal psychotherapy places a number of stringent demands on

' its practitioners. This seems to reflect a principle of increasing subtlety. It

seems that as one moves from working with pa tho log^' toward working . with positive llealtl,. the phenomena. experiences, and barriers may be-

come increasingly moresubtle. the demands on the therapist more relined. and the appropriate techniques more fluid, more sensitive. and less inter- .. .

- fering. Since we are boll1 the tools a n d models for what we have to oRer. i t is

imperative that we seek to 1it.e and be lhat which we would oller to our

28 Beyond rhe Ego I I clients. With few empirical guidelines we must rely heavily on ourselves 1 for guidance a n d must therefore strive for integrity, impeccability, and sensitivity. Nowhere in the field of psychotherapy is the therapist's growlh

i and work on him o r herself more important for both client and therapist.

For what one person has toolTer to another, is thcir own being. nothing more. thine I=. (Ram Dars. 1973. Audiotape\.

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Afidwrs~rrn Rrgionol C~nJerencr~ "Limi~ed Infinity" ! May 9-1 I . 1980. McCormick Inn. Chicago'

Irwin AloK, coordinator, 2716 West Chase Street. Chicago, Illinois 60645

E o s ~ r r ~ R e ~ i o n o l Conference. "Humanistic Alternatives for Personal and Social Chinge"

May 16-10. 1980. Sheraton Hotel, Philadelphia Susannah Lipman. coordinator. 2 Washington Square Village. *6-T.

New York, New York 10012

Norrhtiesrern Regional ConJererrce June. 1980 Evergreen State College (date and s i ~ e tentative) Kalhy Proctor. coordinator. 13520 N.W. 29th Place. Bellevue. Washington

98005

A HP lRrh Annuol Mrering August 16-30. 1980. Snowmass Village. Colorado August 16-23: Communities

1 August 23-27: Conference I A U R U S ~ 28-30: Institutes

~ a c ' k Drach. coordinator. AHP. 325 Ninth Street. San Francisco. Califor- nia 94103