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Basicbodytissueskinpdf 100330065419-phpapp01

Nov 12, 2014

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Khadijah Siwaju

Formation of Body tissues
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Formation of

Tissues of the Body

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Precursors Cells

•Totipotent ?

•Pleuripotent ?

•Stem cells?

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Highlights

• Epithelia

• Glands

• Mesenchyme

• Connective tissue

• Formation of blood

• Formation of cartilage

• Bone

• Formation of muscle

• Nervous tissue

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Highlights (continue)

• Epithelia

• may originate from ectoderm, endoderm or mesoderm.

• Epithelia lining external surfaces of the body, and terminal

parts of passages opening to outside are derived from ectoderm.

• Gut lining epithelium is endodermal in origin.

• Urogenital tract lining epithelium is derived frommesoderm.

• In some parts of urogenital tract it is endodermal in origin.

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Highlights (continue)2

• Mesenchyme

• Is made of cells that can give rise to cartilage, bone, muscle, blood and connective tissues.

• Blood cells are derived from mesenchyme in bone marrow, liver and spleen. Lymphocytes are formed mainly in lymphoid tissues.

• Most bones are formed by endochondral ossification (in which a cartilaginous model is first formed and is later replaced by bone).

• Some bones are formed by direct ossification of membrane (intramembranous ossification).

• Centre of ossification = an area where ossification start.

• There are primary and secondary centre of ossification.

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Highlights (continue)3

• Primary centre of ossification gives rise to diaphysis (shaft).

• Secondary centre of ossification gives rise to epiphysis (bone end).

• Epiphyseal plate separate diaphysis from epiphysis in growing bone.

• Metaphysis = part of diaphysis adjoining to epiphyseal plate.

• Somites undergo division into three parts

1. Dermatome forms the dermis of the skin.

2. Myotome forms the skeletal muscle.

3. Sclerotome helps to form the vertebral column and ribs.

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Highlights (continue)4

• Skeletal muscle• Is derived partly from somites and partly from

mesenchyme of origin.

• Most Smooth muscle• Is derived from mesenchyme related to viscera, and

blood vessels.

• Cardiac muscle• Is derived from mesoderm related to the developing

heart.

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Highlights (continue)5

• Neurons and many neuroglial cells are formed in the neural tube .

• The myelin sheaths of the peripheral nerves are derived from Schwann cells.

• The myelin sheaths of the central nervous system are derived from oligodendrocytes.

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The basic Tissues of the Body

• Epithelial Tissue• Epithelium consists of cells arranged in the

form of continuous sheets.

• Epithelia line the external and internal surfaces of the body and of body cavities.

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The basic Tissues of the Body (continue)

• Connective Tissue• Connective tissue proper includes:

1. Loose connective tissue

2. Dense connective tissue

3. Adipose tissue

4. Special connective tissues:

blood

cartilage

bone

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The basic Tissues of the Body (continue)

• Muscular tissue

• This is of three types:

1. Striated muscle

1. Cardiac muscle

2. Smooth muscle

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The basic Tissues of the Body (continue)

• Nervous tissue

This tissue consists of :

1. Neurons (nerve cells)

2. Nerve cell processes (axons and dendrites)

3. cells of neuroglia

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Formation of Basic Body Tissues

• An epithelium may be derived from ectoderm, endoderm or mesoderm.

• In general, ectoderm gives rise to epithelia covering the external surfaces of the body; and some surfaces near the exterior.

• Endoderm gives origin to the epithelium of most of the gut; and

structures arising as diverticulum from the gut (liver and pancreas).

• Mesoderm gives origin to epithelial lining of the greater part of the urogenital tract.

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Epithelia

• Epithelia derived from ectoderm:1. Epithelium of skin, hair follicles, sweat glands, and

mammary gland.

2. Epithelium over cornea and conjunctiva, external acoustic and outer surface of tympanic membrane.

3. Epithelium of some parts of the mouth, lower part of anal canal, terminal part of male urethra, parts of female external genitalia.

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Epithelia (continue)

• Epithelia derived from endoderm:

1. Epithelium of the entire gut except part of the mouth and anal canal.

2. Epithelium of auditory tube and middle ear.

3. Epithelium of respiratory tract.

4. Epithelium over part of urinary bladder, urethra and vagina.

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Epithelia (continue)

• Epithelia derived from mesoderm:1. Tubules of kidneys, ureter, trigone of urinary bladder.

2. Uterine tubes, uterus, part of vagina.

3. Testis and its duct system.4. Endothelium lining the heart, blood vessels and

lymphatics.

5. Mesothelium lining the pericardial, peritoneal and pleural; and cavities of joints.

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Glands

• Almost all glands , both exocrine and endocrine, develop as

diverticula from the epithelial surfaces.

• The gland may be derived from elements formed by branching of one diverticulum (parotid) or may be formed from several diverticula (lacrimal gland, prostate).

• The opening of the duct/s is usually situated at the site of the original outgrowth.

• In the case of endocrine glands (thyroid, anterior pituitary) the gland loses all contact with the epithelial surface from which it takes origin.

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Glands(continue)

• The diverticula are solid to begin with and are canalized later.

• The proximal part of diverticula form the duct system.

• The distal part of the diverticula form the secretory elements.

• Depending on the epithelium from which they take origin;

• The gland may be:1. Ectodermal origin (sweat gland , mammary gland).

2. Endodermal origin (liver, pancreas).

3. Mesodermal origin (adrenal cortex).

4. Mixed origin (prostate).

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Mesenchyme • Mesoderm gives rise to small portion of epithelia,

• The remaining cells converted into loose connective tissue called MESENCHYME.

• Mesenchymal cells form many different kinds of cells:1. Chondroblasts form---------------------cartilage.

2. Osteoblasts form --------------------------- bone.

3. Myoblast form --------------------------- muscle.

4. Lymphoblasts +haemocytoblasts form--------- various cells of blood.

5. Endothelial cells form -- blood vessels and the primitive heart tube.

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Connective Tissue

• Consists of three components:

1. Cells .

2. Fibers.

3. Ground substance.

At the site of formation of loose connective tissue the mesenchymal cells get converted into fibroblasts.

Fibroblasts secrete the ground substance and synthesize the collagen, reticular and elastic fibers.

Some of the mesenchymal cells get converted into mast cells, histiocytes, plasma cells and fat cells in the developing connective tissue.

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Formation of BLOOD• Blood is a specialized fluid connective tissue, which act as a major

transport system within the body.• In the 3rd week of embryonic life, formation of blood vessele and

blood cells is first seen in the ;1. Wall of the yolk sac.2. Around the allantoic diverticulum.3. In the connecting stalk.

• In these situations, clusters of mesodermal cells aggregate to form blood islands.

• These cells converted to precursor cells (haemangioblasts).

• Haemangioblasts give rise to blood vessels and blood cells.

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Formation of BLOOD (continue)

• Hematopoietic stem cells;

are present in the centre of the blood island, form the precursor of all blood cells.

• Angioblasts; are the periphery of the island form the precursor of blood vessels.

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Formation of BLOOD (continue)

• Blood cells arising in the blood islands of the yolk sac are temporary.

• These cells are soon replaced by

• permanent stem cells, which arise

from the mesoderm surrounding the developing aorta.

• These stem cells first form colonies in the liver.

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Formation of BLOOD (continue)

• In the late embryonic period the formation of blood starts in the liver.

• Liver remains important site of cell formation till 6th month of intrauterine life.

• Almost near the middle of prenatal life, definitive hematopoietic stem cells from the liver migrate to colonize the bone marrow.

• At the time of the birth, blood formation is mainly in the bone marrow.

• Totipotent haemal cells give rise to:

1. Pleuripotent lymphoid cells.

2. Pleuripotent haemal cells.

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Formation of BLOOD (continue)

• Stem cells give rise to colony forming unit (CFU).

• Cells from each particular CFU are committed to differentiate only into

one line of blood cells, i.e. erythrocytes, megakaryocytes, granulocytes, monocytes, macrophage and lymphocytes.

• BFU burst forming units applied to RBC (red blood cells) as they so rapidly divide.

• In the adult the main sites of blood formation are:

1. Bone marrow.

2. Lymph nodes.

3. Thymus.

4. Spleen.

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Formation of Cartilage

• Cartilage is formed from mesenchyme.

• Mesenchyme --------- mesenchymal condensation ------ --------chondroblasts -------- intercellular substance.

• Chondroblasts --------- chondrocytes (imprisoned within the substance of

developing cartilage).

• Mesenchyme ----- perichondrium (fibrous membrane).

• Some fibers develop in the intercellular substance;1. Collagen fibers present in hyaline cartilage but are not seen easily.

2. Collage fibers are numerous and very obvious in fibrocartilage.

3. In some situations, elastic fibers permeate the intercellular substance forming the elastic cartilage.

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Formation of Bone

• Types of bone cell.

• Formation of bone.

• Endochondral ossification.

• Development of a typical long bone.

• Growth of long bone.

• Anomalies of long bone formation.

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Formation of Bone (continue)

• There are three types of bone cells:

1. Osteocytes .

2. Osteoblasts.

3. Osteoclasts.

Osteocytes = cells seen in mature bone.

Osteoblasts = bone forming cells.

Osteoclasts = cells responsible for bone removal.

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Formation of Bone / Types of Ossification

• All bone is of mesodermal origin.

• Ossification = the process of bone formation.

• Bone formation is preceded by the formation of a CARTILAGENOUS MODEL, that resembles the bone to be formed.

• Endochondral Ossification = the cartilage is replaced (notconverted) by bone. The bone is called cartilage bone. This is seen in most parts of the embryo.

• Intramembranous Ossification = the process where the bone is not preceded by cartilage. The bone is called MEMBRANE BONE. This is seen in the mandible, clavicle and the vault of the skull.

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Endochondral Ossification

• There are essential steps in the formation of bone by endochondral ossification:

1. Mesenchymal cells -------- Mesenchymal condensation.

2. Some cells become chondroblasts --- lay down hyaline cartilage. The cells on the surface -------- perichondrium (vascular membrane

and contains osteogenic cells).

3. The cells of the cartilage begin to enlarge considerably.

4. Intercellular substance between enlarged cells becomes calcified (alkaline phosphatase influence). The cells die leaving spaces called PRIMARY AREOLAE.

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Endochondral Ossification(continue)

5. Perichondrium = Periosteum. Some blood vessels invade the calcified cartilaginous matrix forming PERIOSTEAL BUD, this bud eats away much of the calcified matrix forming the primary areolae creating large cavities called SECONDARY AREOLAE.

6. The walls of the secondary areolae are formed by thin layer of calcified matrix. The osteogenic cells become osteoblasts and arrange themselves.

7. Osteoblasts lay down ossein fibrils that calcified and called OSTEOID, then a LAMELLUS of bone is formed.

8. Osteoblasts lay down another layer of osteoid over the 1st lamellus. This layer also calcified. Thus two lamellus formed. Some osteoblasts that embedded between the lamella form OSTEOCYTES. As more LAMELLAE are laid down, bony trabeculae are formed.

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• The calcified matrix of cartilage only acts as a support for the developing trabeculae and it is not itself converted into bone.

• At this stage the ossifying cartilage shows these areas;

1. A region of calcified cartilaginous matrix surrounds dead and dying cartilage cells.

2. A zone of hypertrophied cartilage cells, in an uncalcified matrix.

3. Area of normal cartilage with considerable mitotic activity.

The ossification has extended into layer by layer, in this way, the ossifying cartilage progressively increases in size.

Endochondral Ossification(continue)2

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Development of a Typical Long Bone

1. Mesenchymal condensation. MC

2. MC is converted into cartilaginous model. The model resembles the bone and is covered by perichondrium.

3. Primary centre of ossification (endochondral ossification) in a small area of the shaft.

4. Bone formation extends from the primary centre of ossification towards the ends of the shaft. This is accompanied by enlargement of the cartilaginous model.

5. Perichondrium is now called the periosteum and becomes active, intramembranous ossification begins, periosteal collar appears and this collar will extend from area of primary centre towards the end of cartilaginous model (that is why it is called intramembranous in origin).

6. At about the time of birth, the developing bone consists of diaphysis.

7. After birth, secondary centres of endochondral ossification appear in the cartilages forming the ends of the bone.

8. The portion of bone formed from one secondary centre is called an EPIPHYSIS.

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• The diaphysis and the epiphysis are separated by a

plate of cartilage called the EPIPHYSEAL CARTILAGE or the EPIPHYSEAL PLATE.

• This is formed by a cartilage into which ossification has not extended either from the diaphysis or from the epiphysis.

• This plate plays a vital role in growth of bone. //// diseases (i.e. infection).

Development of a Typical Long Bone(continue)

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Growth of Long Bone

• A growing bone increases in length and in thickness.• The osteoclasts come to line the internal surface of the

shaft and remove bone from this aspect.• The osteoclasts also remove the trabeculae lying in the

centre of the bone.

• In this way a marrow cavity is formed.• Marrow cavity extends towards the ends of the

diaphysis but does not reach the epiphyseal plate.• Gradually most of the bone formed from the primary

centre is removed, except near the ends, so that the wall of the shaft is made up purely of periosteal bone formed by the process of intramembranous ossification.

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• To understand how a bone grows in length, a closer look at the epiphyseal plate reveal arrangement of cells as follows:

1. Zone of resting cartilage.

2. Zone of proliferating cartilage. (repeated mitosis).

3. Zone of calcification, larger cells and the matrix becomes calcified.

Next to the zone of calcification, there is a zone where cartilage cells are dead and the calcified matrix is been replaced by bone.

On the diaphyseal surface of the epiphyseal cartilage growth of the bone takes place by continuous transformation of the epiphyseal cartilage to bone.

When the bone has attained its full length, cells in the epiphyseal cartilage stop proliferating.

The process of ossification continues until the whole of the epiphyseal plate is converted into bone.

The bone of the diaphysis and epiphysis then becomes continuous. This is called FUSION OF EPIPHYSIS.

Growth of Long Bone(continue)

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• Metaphysis =

• The portion of diaphysis adjoining the epiphyseal plate.

• Region of active bone formation.

• Highly vascular.

• Does not have marrow cavity.

• Numerous muscles and ligaments are usually attached to the bone in this region.

• Most active calcium-turnover function area.

• Acts as storehouse of calcium.

• Is Frequently the site of infection.

Growth of Long Bone(continue)

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• Interstitial and Appositional Growth

• Tissues grow by two methods:1. Multiplication of cells (or increase intercellular material) =

interstitial growth. Cartilage and most other tissues grow in this way. The tissue expands equally in all directions and its shape is maintained.

2. Appositional growth = bone grows only by deposition of more bone on its surface, or at its ends.

Growth of Long Bone(continue)

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• Remodelling :• A tissue grows by interstitial growth, it is easy to maintain its

shape. This is not true of bone.

• Bone shape is maintained by removal of unwanted bone. This process is called remodelling.

• INTERNAL MODELLING = change of arrangement with change in stresses acting on bone.

• Trabeculae of spongy bone and the Haversian systems of compact bone are so arranged that they are best fitted to bear stresses imposed on them.

Growth of Long Bone(continue)

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Anomalies of Bone Formation

1. Dyschondroplasia = enchondromatosis.

2. Exostosis : multiple exostosis or diaphyseal aclasis.

3. Osteogenesis imperfecta.

4. Fibrous dysplasia.

5. Osteosclerosis seen in osteopetrosis or marble bone disease.

6. Achondroplasia, chondro-osteo-dystrophy.

7. Cleido-cranial dysostosis.

8. Dwarfism , Gigantism, asymmetric development.

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Formation of Muscle

• Fate of somites.

• Development of striated muscle.

• Smooth muscle.

• Cardiac muscle.

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• Fate of somites:

• Paraxial mesoderm becomes segmented to form a number of somites that lie on either side of the developing neural tube.

• A cross section through a somite shows that :

it is a triangular structure

It is divided into three parts:

1. Sclerotome.

2. Dermatome.

3. Myotome.

Formation of MuscleFate of somites

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• Sclerotome :

• Ventromedial part of somite.

• The cells of sclerotome Migrate medially.

• Surround the neural tube.

• Give rise to the vertebral column and ribs.

Formation of Muscle

Fate of somites (continue)

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• Dermatome :• The cells of this part migrate and come to line the deep

surface of the ectoderm of the entire body.

• Give rise to the dermis of the skin and to the subcutaneous tissue.

•Myotome :• Gives rise to striated muscle.

Formation of MuscleFate of somites

(continue)

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• In the cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral regions one spinal nerve innervates each myotome.

• The number of somites formed in these regions corresponds to the number of spinal nerves.

• In the coccygeal region, the somites exceed the number of

spinal nerves but • many of the subsequently degenerate.

Formation of MuscleFate of somites

(continue)

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• The first cervical somite is not the most cranial somite to be formed.

• Cranial to it, there are:1. The occipital somites (4 to 5) which give rise to

muscles of the tongue and are supplied by hypoglossal nerve.

2. The pre-occipital (or pre-otic) somites (somitomeres) supplied by the 3rd, 4th, and 6th cranial nerves.

Formation of MuscleFate of somites

(continue)

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• Striated muscle is derived from somites and also from mesenchyme of the region.

• Each myotome contact with one segmental nerve.

• Theoretically, the embryological derivation of muscle should be indicated by its nerve supply!!!!!!

• On this basis it would be presumed that the musculature of the body wall and limbs is derived from the myotomes and subsequently migrates to these regions.

• Such migration can be seen in embryos of some lower animals, but not in human embryo.

• In man, the myotomes appear to give origin only the trunk, in whole or part.

Formation of MuscleDevelopment of striated muscle

(continue)

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• The occipital myotomes are believed to give rise to the musculature of the tongue,

• While the extrinsic muscles of the eye ball are regarded as derivatives of the pre-occipital myotomes.

• Soon after formation, each myotome, in the neck and trunk, separates into:

1. Epimere (dorsal part) gives rise to muscles supplied by the dorsal primary ramus of the spinal nerve (extensor muscles of the back = extensors of the vertebral column).

2. Hypomere (ventral part) gives origin to the muscles supplied by the ventral ramus (muscles of the body wall and limbs).

Striated muscle may rise in-situ from mesenchyme of the region, the limb muscles develop in this way. The muscles of the abdominal and thoracic walls probably arise in-situ.

Formation of MuscleDevelopment of striated muscle

(continue)

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• Almost all smooth muscle is derived from mesenchyme,

• Smooth muscle in the wall of viscera (e.g. stomach) is formed

from splanchnopleuric mesoderm in relation to them.

• However, the muscles of the iris (sphincter and dilated pupillae) and myoepithelial cells of the sweat glands are

derived from ectoderm.

Formation of Muscle(continue)

SMOOTH MUSCLE

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• This is derived from splanchnopleuric

mesoderm in relation to the developing heart tubes and pericardium.

Formation of Muscle(continue)

CARDIAC MUSCLE

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Nervous Tissue• Formation of neurons and neuroglial cells.

• Formation of Myelin Sheath.

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• Nervous tissue consists of:• Cells,

• Fibers, and

• Blood vessels.

The c ells are of two categories:

1. Neurons. (cells that generate and conduct nerve impulses).

2. Neuroglial cells. (supporting structure).

Neurons have many processes i.e. axons and dendrites. Theses processes collect to form nerves.

Blood vessels of nervous tissue are not derived from neural tube but enter it from surrounding mesoderm.

Nervous Tissue

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• The neurons and many neuroglial cells are formed in the neural tube.

• The neural tube is at first is lined by single layer of cells which proliferate to form several layers:

1. Matrix cell layer = primitive ependymal or germinal layer. Cells give rise to neurological cells and also to more germinal cells.

2. Mantle cell layer = seen in developing nerve cells and neuroglial cells.

3. Marginal zone = the outermost layer, contains no nerve cells. Consists of a reticulum formed by protoplasmic processes of developing neuroglial cells (spongioblasts). It provides a framework into which the processes of nerve cells developing in the mantle layer can grow.

Nervous Tissueformation of neurons and neuroglial cells

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• The stages in the formation of a neuron or nerve cell are as follows:

1. Apolar neuroblast (one cell from germinal layer passes to the mantle layer).

2. Bipolar neuroblast.

3. Unipolar neuroblast.

4. Multipolar neuroblast. (process elongates + numerous small processes).

5. Axon (the process grows into germinal layer). Axon establish connection.

6. Dendrites (The smaller processes) establish connection with other nerve cells.

7. Nissl’s granules appear and the neurons lose the ability to divide.

Nervous Tissueformation of neurons and neuroglial cells (continue)

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• Neuroglial cells are formed from germinal cells of the ependymal layer:

• Glioblasts –migrate to the mantle and marginal zone as

• Medulloblasts = spongioblasts differentiate either into astroblasts and the into astrocytes, or into oligodendroblasts and then into oligodendrocytes.

• Microglia = 3rd layer of neuroglial cell. This type does not develop from the cells of the neural tube, but migrates into it along with blood vessels. (these cells are believed to be of mesodermal origin)

So ependymal (or neuroepithelial) cells give rise both to neuroblast and neuroglia.

Neuroblasts are formed first.

Neuroglial cells are formed after the differentiation of neuroblasts is completed.

Nervous Tissueformation of neurons and neuroglial cells (continue)

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• Neuroglial cells support the nerve fibers within the brain and spinal cord.

• Peripheral nerve fibers acquire a special sheath called neurolemma.

• Neurolemma is derived from Schwann cells (neural crest cells).

• Another sheath ‘is called MYELIN SHEATH’ develops between neurolemma and the axon.

• Myelin sheaths of the peripheral nerves are derived from Schwann cells.

• There is no Schwann cells in the central nervous system????• Myelin sheaths of the central nervous are formed by OLIGODENDROCYTES.

• Nerve fibers become fully functional only after myelination.

• Myelination process begins during the 4th month of intrauterine, BUT is not completed until the child is 2 to 3 years old.

Nervous Tissueformation of myelin sheath

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Various Types of Cells Derived from Neuroepithelium

From neural tube From neural crest From mesenchymal cells

NeuronsFibrous astrocytesProtoplasmic astrocytesOligodendroglia?Ependymal cells

Schwann cellsDorsal n. Root ganglion cellsCells of other sensory gangliaNeurons in sympathetic ganglia

MicrogliaOligodendroglia?

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• The blood vessels of the brain, and their surrounding connective tissue, are mesodermal in origin (not derived from the neural tube).

• Dura mater develops from the mesoderm surrounding the neural tube.

• The development of pia mater and the arachnoid mater (leptomenninges) is not definitely understood.

Nervous Tissueformation of myelin sheath (continue)

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The Skin and its

Appendages

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Timetable Age Developmental events

7th week Mammary line is established

8th week Melanoblasts start appearing

1st to 3rd month Cells of neural crest migrate to skin

2nd month Surface ectoderm is single layered

2nd to 4th month Surface ectoderm becomes multiple layered

3rd to 4th month Dermal papilla are formed

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Highlights

• The skin

• Nail

• Hair

• Sebaceous Glands

• Sweat Glands

• Mammary Glands

• Timetable

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• The epidermis is derived from surface ectoderm.

• The dermis is formed by mesenchyme derived from dermatomes of somites.

• Nails develop from ectoderm at the tip of each digit. This ectoderm then migrates to the dorsal aspect.

• Hair are derived from surface ectoderm that is modified to form hair follicles.

• Sebaceous glands (ectoderm) arise as diverticula from hair follicles.

• Sweat glands develop as downgrowths from the epidermis.

• Mammary glands arise from surface ectoderm.

they are formed along a milk line.

Highlights

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skin

• The skin is derived from three diverse components:

1. Surface ectoderm forms the epidermis.

2. Neural crest gives rise to dendritic cells.

3. Dermatomes of somite forms the epidermis.

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Skin (continue)

The Epidermis, is derived from the surface ectoderm.

at first, it is single layer.

ectodermal cells proliferate to give rise to typical stratified squamous epithelium.

many of the superficial layers are shed off.

shed off layers are mixed with the secretion of the sebaceous glands to form VERNIX CASEOSA.

VERNIX CASEOSA covers the skin of the newborn infant, and it has a protective function.

Epidermal ridges develop between 3rd and 4th months of fetal life.

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Characteristic pattern (whorls, loop, and arch) are formed on the tip of fingers and toes. This patterns are genetically determined and are different for each person.

Melanoblasts (or dendritic cells) are derived from the neural crest.

Merkel and Langerhans cells in the dermis appear between 8th and 12th

weeks of the intrauterine life.

The dermis Is formed by condensation and differentiation of mesenchyme

underlying the surface ectoderm.

This mesenchyme is believed to be derived from the dermatome of somites.

Skin The Epidermis (continue)

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Dermo-epidermal junction The line of junction between dermis and epidermis is at first

straight.

The epidermis shows regularly spaced thickenings that project into the dermis.

The portions of the dermis intervening between these projection form the DERMAL PAPILLAE.

Epidermal ridges are formed by further thickening of the epidermis in the same situation.

Skin (continue)

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Nail

• The nail develop from the surface ectoderm.

• Ectoderm form the PRIMARY NAIL FIELD at the tip of each digit.

• From the tip it migrates dorsally.

• Root of the nail is formed .

• Germinal matrix is formed.

• Cells of the matrix multiply, they transformed into the nail substance (corresponds to the stratum lucidum of the skin).

• This migration explains why the skin of the dorsal aspect of the terminal part is supplied by nerves of the ventral aspect.

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Hair

The hair are derived from surface ectoderm.

At the site where a hair follicle is to be formed, the germinal layer of the epidermis proliferates to form a cylindrical mass that grows down into the dermis.

The lower end of this downgrowth is called papilla.

The hair are formed by proliferation of germinal cells overlying the papilla.

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Epithelial root sheath = the cells of the downgrowth surround the hair.

An additional dermal root sheath is formed from the surrounding mesenchymal cells.

Arrector pili = thin band of smooth muscle is formed by mesodermal cells.

Arrector pili gets attached to the dermal root sheath.

Hair (continue)

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Sebaceous Glands

A sebaceous gland is formed from ectodermal cells forming the wall of a hair follicle.

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Sweat Glands

A sweat gland develops as a downgrowth from the epidermis.

It is solid at first but later it is canalized.

The lower end is coiled and form the secretory part of the gland.

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Anomalies of Skin Appendages

1. Albinism./////!!!???? Vitiligo.

2. Aplasia.

3. Dysplasia.

4. Congenital alopecia./atrichia X hypertrichosis.

5. Anonychia X over development.

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Mammary Glands

The ectoderm becomes thickened along the milk line (from axilla to the inguinal region), to form mammary ridges or lines.

A thickened mass of epidermal cells is seen projecting into the dermis.

From this thickening about 20+/- solid outgrowths arise and grow into the surrounding dermis.

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The mass and outgrowths become canalized.

The secretory elements of the gland are formed by proliferation of the terminal parts of the outgrowths.

The proximal end of each outgrowth forms one lactiferous duct.

The ducts open into the NIPPLE (at first it is a pit).

The mammary gland remains rudimentary in the male.

In females, the ducts and secretory elements undergo extensive development during puberty and pregnancy.

Mammary Glands (continue)

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Anomalies of the Mammary Glands

1) Amastia.

2) Athelia.

3) Polythelia and polymastia.

4) Accessory breasts.

5) Inverted or crater nipple.

6) Micromastia X macromastia

7) Gynaecomastia.

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Timetable Age Developmental events

7th week Mammary line is established

8th week Melanoblasts start appearing

1st to 3rd month Cells of neural crest migrate to skin

2nd month Surface ectoderm is single layered

2nd to 4th month Surface ectoderm becomes multiple layered

3rd to 4th month Dermal papilla are formed

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Timetable Age Developmental events

7th week Mammary line is established

8th week Melanoblasts start appearing

1st to 3rd month Cells of neural crest migrate to skin

2nd month Surface ectoderm is single layered

2nd to 4th month Surface ectoderm becomes multiple layered

3rd to 4th month Dermal papilla are formed