AYO

IMPACT OF EDUCATION ON THE PRODUCTION AND USE OF HERBAL DECOCTIONS AND

CONCOCTIONS BY NIGERIANS

(A CASE STUDY OF ONDO TOWN)

A RESEARCH PROJECT

SUBMITTED TO

BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT,OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY,

ADEYEMI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, ONDO, ONDO STATE

BY

AKINLOSOTU AYOKUNLE OLALEKAN050584D

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

IN BIOLOGY EDUCATION (B.Sc ED)

FEBRUARY, 2010

1

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this research project was carried out by Akinlosotu

Ayokunle Olalekan and submitted to the department of Biology, Obafemi

Awolowo University, Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo, Ondo state.

……………………Adenegan-Alakinde T.A.Supervisor

……………………….Dr. Femi OlajuiyegbeHead of Department

2

DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated to God Almighty who is the giver of all

wisdom and excellence. And to the memory of my loving mother Mrs.

Florence Olufunke Akinlosotu.

3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my profound gratitude to my father Mr. S.A Akinlosotu

and siblings Mr. Olarewaju Akinmade , Mrs. Caroline Arowosebe and

Mrs. Victoria Adetoyinbo who have contributed immensely to the

successful completion of my studies.

Much thanks to my supervisor, Mrs. Adenegan-Alakinde whose useful

advice and constructive criticism has contributed in no small measure to

the success of this research project.

Space and time will fail me to mention everyone that has been there for

me in one way or the other, however, I must acknowledge my Head of

Department, Dr. Femi Olajuyigbe for his fatherly advice and role in my

studentship, Mr. Ilori, Mr. Sanni, Mr. Sabejeje, Dr. (Mrs) Oni, Mrs.

Akinkuolie, Mr. Olaniyan, Mrs Awe Dr (Mrs) Ayoola, Mrs. Adebola.

There is no self-made man on earth. In my journey so far , I have met

individuals who have helped in building a destiny. I greatly appreciate

Olatunde Folarin Ferdinand, Adeoye Tobi, Abesin Temitope, Winney

Ben-Abba and of course my best friend, Pelemo Toluwalope Omotola.

4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE. . . . . . . . . i

CERTIFICATION. . . . . . . . ii

DEDICATION. . . . . . . . . iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. . . . . . . iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS. . . . . . . v-vi

ABSTRACT. . . . . . . . . vii

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . 1

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY. . . . . 2

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM. . . .

1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY.. . . . . 1

1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY. . .

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY. . . . .

1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS. . .

1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS. . . . . .

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE.. . .

2.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF HERBAL DECOCTION.

2.2 HEALTH EFFECTS OF HERBAL DECOCTION. . .

2.3 SOCIAL EFFECTS OF HERBAL DECOCTIONS. .

2.4 EDUCATIONAL PATTERNS AND HERBAL

DECOCTION CONSUMPTION AMONG NIGERIANS. .

5

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. . . . .

3.1 STUDY AREA. . . . . . . .

3.2 DESIGN OF THE STUDY METHOD. . . .

3.3 THE STUDY SAMPLE.. . . . . .

3.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE. . . . . .

3.5 DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT. . .

3.6 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS. . .. . .

3.7 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS. . . . .

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION. .

4.1 RESULT OF RESEARCH STUDY.. . . .

4.2 DATA ANALYSIS. . . . . . .

4.3 TEST AND INTERPRETATION OF HYPOTHESIS. .

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION, SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

5.2 SUMMARY

5.3 RECOMMENDATION

REFERENCES

APPENDIX - QUESTIONNAIRES

6

ABSTRACT

Herbal trade has been on the increase in Nigeria in recent times not only

because it is cost effective but also because of easy accessibility and

reported efficacy. Herbal medicines may be dispensed in refined ways

by display in supermarkets and drug stores, and sometimes in hospitals

and by crude means involving hawking directly to customers in various

forms as ground powder, cooked decoction and concoction. The

business is branded “paraga” in the parlance of the consumers. This

complementary health care endeavour of the people encouraged the

present study with the aims to relate educational status of a consumer to

the knowledge and its safety. Well structured questionnaires were used

to elicit information from respondents. Five hundred (500) questionnaires

were distributed and four hundred and eighty five (485) were returned.

The result revealed that 70% of the total sample size are consumers, of

which 14% of them are educated. Data analysis of responses were done

using simple descriptive statistics. Recommendations were however

made that self medication is a risk of getting some complications. So , it

is important for one to consult one’s doctor and pharmacist before taking

herbal medicine.

7

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Herbal medicine - also called botanical medicine or phytomedicine -

refers to using a plant's seeds, berries, roots, leaves, bark, or flowers for

medicinal purposes. Herbalism has a long tradition of use outside of

conventional medicine. It is becoming more mainstream as

improvements in analysis and quality control along with advances in

clinical research show the value of herbal medicine in the treating and

preventing disease (Gillespie, 1997).

Plants had been used for medicinal purposes long before recorded

history. Ancient Chinese and Egyptian papyrus writings describe

medicinal uses for plants. Indigenous cultures (such as African and

Native American) used herbs in their healing rituals, while others

developed traditional medical systems (such as Ayurveda and

Traditional Chinese Medicine) in which herbal therapies were used.

Researchers found that people in different parts of the world tended to

use the same or similar plants for the same purposes.

Traditional medicine can be described as the total combination of

knowledge and practice, whether explicable or not, used in diagnosing,

preventing or eliminating a physical, mental or social disease and which

may rely exclusively on past experience and observation handed down

from generation to generation, verbally or in writing (Sofowora, 1982). A

medicinal plant is any plant which in one or more of its organs contains

substances that can be used for therapeutic purposes or which are

precursors for the synthesis of useful drugs. The use of medicinal plants

as remedies is common and widespread in Nigeria. Currently, the

society at large appreciates natural cure, which medicinal plants provide

8

compared to synthetic cure. The plants parts used in remedies include

the bark, leaves, roots, flowers, fruits and seeds (Sofowora, 1982).

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The discoveries of the use of plant for food and as medicine began at a

very early stage in human evolution. The history of the use of plants

dates back to the time of the early man. The art of using plants to

enhance his health must have come to the early man in the most

unscientific way. Some people may want to believe that he used his

instinct to identify poisonous and non-poisonous plants while some

accept that there were external forces or invisible help guided him to

know what he could eat freely to keep fit. No matter which one is

accepted the truth is that the early man used plants in the raw form and

cooked form to keep fit. Since that time, the use/consumption of herbs

has been known and accepted by all nations on the surface of the earth.

(Kafaru, 1994). Herbal trade is on the increase in Nigeria in the recent

times not only because it is cost effective but also because of easy

accessibility and reported efficacy.

In the early 19th century, when chemical analysis first became available,

scientists began to extract and modify the active ingredients from plants.

Later, chemists began making their own version of plant compounds,

and over time, the use of herbal medicines declined in favor of drugs.

Recently, the World Health Organization estimated that 80% of people

worldwide rely on herbal medicines for some part of their primary health

care. In Germany, about 600 - 700 plant-based medicines are available

and are prescribed by some 70% of German physicians. In the last 20

years in the United States, public dissatisfaction with the cost of

prescription medications, combined with an interest in returning to

9

natural or organic remedies, has led to an increase in herbal medicine

use.

In many cases, scientists are not sure what specific ingredient in a

particular herb works to treat a condition or illness. Whole herbs contain

many ingredients, and they may work together to produce a beneficial

effect. Many factors determine how effective an herb will be. For

example, the type of environment (climate, bugs, soil quality) in which a

plant grew will affect it, as will how and when it was harvested and

processed.

The use of herbal supplements has increased dramatically over the past

30 years. Herbal supplements are classified as dietary supplements by

the U.S. Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of

2004. That means herbal supplements -- unlike prescription drugs -- can

be sold without being tested to prove that they are safe and effective.

Herbal medicines are used to treat many conditions, such as asthma,

eczema, premenstrual syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, migraine,

menopausal symptoms, chronic fatigue, and irritable bowel syndrome,

among others.

Herbal treatment is one of the primary medicines used to treat HIV in

Africa. It is used more than standard treatment because it is more

affordable. Herbal treatment is more affordable but is not researched

and is poorly regulated. This lack of research on whether the Herbal

medicines work and what the medicines may pose a major flaw in the

healing cycle of HIV in Africa. Because the unprecedented epidemic

scourge of HIV/AIDs in Africa, has made herbal medicine to be

embraced by illiterates and the educated as an alternative curative

measure as well as to ameliorate for lack of funds necessary to access

antiretroviral treatment. Difficulties surrounding access to orthodox

10

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV

treatment has also made a reasonable percentage of the both educated

and illiterates to patronize traditional means of health care delivery

system. Herbal medicines may be dispensed in refined ways by direct

hawking, displayed in supermarkets and drug stores, and sometimes in

hospitals and by crude means involving hawking directly to customers in

various forms as ground powder, cooked decoction and concoction. The

business is branded “paraga” in the parlance of the users. This

complementary health care endeavour of the people encouraged the

present study with the aims to evaluate the caliber of people that

patronize it, the trend of incorporation of the approach into health care

delivery with respect to the educational and exposure/awareness level of

consumers impacting on the trend consumption of these

herbal/medicinal decoctions and concoctions.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Herbal decoction and concoction consumption is a widespread

observable phenomenon among adult population in Southwestern region

of Nigeria, particularly in Ondo Town. The level of education and

exposure to the orthodox medical implications notwithstanding. Many

people irrespective of being aware of the dangers posed by these

mixtures which most often than not within our area of consideration are

poorly and unhygienically prepared still continue to patronize sellers.

These mixtures come in different forms with several coded names like

jembele, kaikan apetesi, 404, karugbojo, and, lately, paraga and so on.

Its sales and consumption has become the norm and in fact makes for a

curious sight if not found at any particular area in Ondo township and its

environs. They are even graded; to know if the one has purchased a

high grade, the consumer could pour a little on the ground and light a

match stick. If it burns with blue flames, then it is of a very high grade.

11

But if it does not, it is regarded as of a very poor grade. Such is the

profile of some of these drinks.

It is expected that the educated ones know better but as it is, there is

much left to be desired by the prevailing trend of and caliber of

consumers as it cuts across all strata, academics, illiterates, artisans,

drivers etc.

Through this study, an attempt would be made to look at this trend of

consumption of herbal decoctions and its corresponding relationship with

education.

1.3. PURPOSE OF STUDY

This project is basically to evaluate the extent to which education

impacts on the rate and pattern of consumption of herbal decoctions and

concoctions. Different classes of the society would be examined and

their culpability and or participation in herbal decoction and concoction

consumption highlighted.

1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF STUDY

This project topic although broad will be limited to what obtains within

Ondo Town. In an attempt to achieve the objectives of this study, the

researcher would consider what herbal decoction and concoction

actually is and the perception of the concept by some authors. The

various classes of users will be examined. Furthermore, the educational

impact on this trend of lifestyle would be put into consideration.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

This research project is significant in highlighting if the level of exposure

and education of the general populace has a measurable and

12

observable impact on their behavioural trends especially as relating to

the production, selling and consumption of herbal/medicinal decoctions

and concoctions as well as briefly look at some of the attendant effects

this has on their health and social life.

1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS

In this research project, the following questions are posed:

1. Has the level of education been a determinant factor in the

consumption of herbal decoction?

2. What are the benefits of herbal decoction to the society?

3. Has the herbal decoction sector had impact on improving health

standard?

4. What are the problems associated with the production, sale and

consumption of herbal concoctions?

5. Should herbal decoction be accepted as an alternative to modern

medicine?

6. Is alcohol a more preferred solvent in the preparation of herbal

concoctions?

HYPOTHESES

I. Ho: Educational level has no significant impact on herbal

decoction consumption.

H1: Educational level has significant impact on herbal


II. H0: There is no significant impact in the refining and production

process with exposure to education.

H1: There is significant impact in the refining and production


13

III. H0: Herbal decoction is complementary to unorthodox medicine.

H1: Herbal decoction is not complementary to unorthodox

medicine.

IV H0: Herbal decoction has no serious side effects on consumers.

H1: Herbal decoction has serious side effects on consumers.

1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS

CONCOCTION: To prepare by combining raw materials e.g. a recipe

DECOCTION: Extract obtained by decocting or boiling

HERBAL: Of, Relating to, utilizing, or made of herbs

MEDICINAL: Tending or used to cure disease or relieve pain

PARAGA: Locally brewed gin or any class of herbal concoctions mixed

in it.

14

CHAPTER TWO

2.0. REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE

This chapter is a highlight of relevant literature and corresponding

primary source information relative to the scope of the research study.

Opinions, suggestions and ideas of various authors on the subject of

herbal decoction, methods, administration and dispensing as well as the

socio-cultural implications on the society will be discussed.

2.1. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF HERBAL DECOCTIONS

The history of herbal decoction and concoction in Ondo Town and the

country at large pre-dates independence. It was such a boost that during

the colonial era, the resultant competition posed to the colonialists efforts

of introducing their brandy and gin into the country gave rise to the

official ban placed on herbal concoctions. Although the primary products

then were not targeted at health issues as in recent developments, it

was a large and booming business even as at then. Herbal decoctions

popularly referred to as ‘paraga’ was locally prepared and found in large

quantities in every nook and cranny of the country. It was and is still the

predominant occupation of a sizeable population of certain ethnic groups

in Nigeria. They include the Urhobo, Ijaw and Ilaje. It is revered by them.

It is egregiously consumed by these people and a large population of

other Nigerians across the country who have developed a special taste

for this drink (Wambebe C, 1998).

Herbal concoctions are popular among Nigerians wherever they

congregate anywhere. Over the years, these special mixtures have

assumed importance in many traditional ceremonies hosted by these

groups. It is difficult to come across any adult from these areas who

have never tasted the herbal decoction and concoctions before. Local

15

residents of several towns and villages in Nigeria usually prefer to drink

or administer this home-brewed herbs than any other unorthodox

medicine or any drink at that, be it beer, brandy, whisky or dry gin. They

are simply ‘addicted’ to it. In some instances, an occasion or ceremony

is adjudged incomplete without free flow of paraga, at least among the

local populace.

2.2 HEALTH EFFECTS OF HERBAL DECOCTION

The distinction between foods, dietary supplements, and drugs is

already being blurred by the burgeoning market in so-called functional

foods (such as cholesterol-lowering margarine), which aim to provide

health benefits beyond mere nutrient value. Moreover, recent advances

in molecular biology offer the possibility of using genetic profiles to

determine unique nutrient requirements, thereby providing customized

dietary recommendations to more effectively delay or prevent disease.

Safety and efficacy concerns must needs be addressed, as “designer

foods” fortified with herbs and bioactive substances continue to

proliferate. Some herbal supplements, especially those imported from

Asian countries, may contain high levels of heavy metals, including lead,

mercury, and cadmium. It is important to purchase herbal supplements

from reputable manufacturers to ensure quality.

In most developing countries, including Nigeria, the majority of the

populace lives in the rural areas, where the use of herbal medicines is

common. The consumption of herbal medicines in the urban areas is on

the increase, arising from the global inflationary trend, which hampers

the sustainable supply of orthodox medicines and reduces the

purchasing power of the populace. The Nigerian Government has

recognized the need and shown political will by approving and adopting

guidelines for the practice of traditional medicine. The regulatory

16

authority, the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and

Control (NAFDAC), has also taken steps to protect the health of

consumers by drafting the 'Guidelines for the Registration and Control of

Herbal Medicinal Products and Related Substances in Nigeria'. Three

broad classes are defined in the Guidelines, and preparations will be

considered under four categories, each of which has its protocol.

Extemporaneous preparations are only to be listed and not registered or

advertised. Post-listing evaluation or monitoring is, however, mandatory.

Herbal medicinal products manufactured on a large scale, whether

imported or locally manufactured, must be registered and their

advertisement messages and scripts approved by NAFDAC prior to their

marketing. Homeopathic medicinal products must be registered and their

advertisement messages approved prior to marketing. Post-registration

evaluation or monitoring is also mandatory for both large-scale herbal

medicinal products and homeopathic products.

Extremely limited knowledge about the ingredients in some herbal

medicines and their effects in humans, the lack of stringent quality

control and the heterogeneous nature of herbal medicines all necessitate

the continuous monitoring of the safety of these products (Chan,

T.Y,1997).

2.3 SOCIAL EFFECTS OF HERBAL DECOCTIONS

One of the most noticeable social effect of herbal decoctions is the

issue of economic empowerment. Especially in a culture where poverty

is the order of the day, a discovery of a societal need is a promise of

economic relieve. A cross-section of Nigerians feed and live on the

proceeds of the sales of this drink. They do not know any other trade.

Apart from the brewers themselves, there are other middlemen who buy

17

and take the drinks to other parts of the country. This has been a major

source of income for traders plying their trade in herbal decoctions.

Besides the economic benefits derived from the production and sale of

herbal decoctions, there is also the question of influence, affluence and

respect as most of these practitioners are well thought of in society and

revered with high sounding titles like chief, doctor, prince and the likes.

Generally, producers and to an extent sellers are highly regarded in the

society irrespective of their educational status as they are seen to play

an important role in meeting the health and psychological needs of the

society.

As related to standard behavioral pattern (Howanitz et al, 1979; British

Pharmaceutical Codex, 1979), those who ingest herbal decoction

(paraga) would have a mild influence on stereoscopic vision and lack of

adaptation. While those who drink palmwine would be expected to

experience euphoria, disappearance of inhibition and prolonged reaction

time, those who ingested beer, ogogoro, and gin would undergo

moderately severe poisoning with greatly prolonged reaction time, loss

of inhibition and slight disturbance in equilibrium and coordination

2.4 EDUCATIONAL PATTERNS AND HERBAL DECOCTION

CONSUMPTION AMONG NIGERIANS

Nearly two-thirds of Nigerians consume herbs. Kunle, O. (2000) reported

that unfortunately nearly 70% of people taking herbal medicines were

well educated and had a higher-than-average income. These set of

people were reluctant to tell their doctors that they used complementary

and alternative medicine. Most respondents also provided that they have

been using herbal decoctions for quite some time and the art of herbal

decoction processing and production was acquired by training from

18

friends, neighbours, mothers, fathers or mothers- and fathers-in-law

through apprenticeships (usually a short period), mere observation and

hereditary induction to the craft and thus had the requisite knowledge in

plant identification, materials and methods of preparation and dispensing

of the right treatment for the right ailment.

Many herbs can interact with prescription medications and cause

unwanted or dangerous reactions. The herbs available in most stores

come in several different forms: teas, syrups, oils, liquid extracts,

tinctures, and dry extracts (pills or capsules). A level of education is

therefore necessary for a consumer to be able to communicate

effectively to a seller in getting the right treatment for a specific ailment.

19

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 STUDY AREA: ONDO

Ondo town, Ondo state, southwestern Nigeria, lies at the southern edge

of the Yoruba Hills (elevation 940 feet [287 m]) and the intersection of

roads from Ife, Akure, and Okitipupa. Ondo region lies within latitude

070,40N and longitude 040,80E. The town is about 30Km south of Akure,

the Ondo State capital. The town is a collecting point for cocoa and palm

oil and kernels, it is a local market centre (yams, cassava, corn [maize],

poultry, fish, fruits, palm produce, pumpkins, okra) and the location of a

branch office of the Federal Ministry of Trade. Wooden doors and

furniture are manufactured at Ondo. It also serves as the site of several

teacher-training colleges. Infact, the foremost teacher training college in

Nigeria is located in Ondo Town. It also has a good number of

secondary schools, a vocational institute, and hospitals. It has an

estimated population of about 1,457,300 (2006 Census).

3.2 DESIGN OF THE STUDY METHODS

The researcher administered a twenty-four question structured

questionnaire among the producers, consumers and sellers of herbal

decoction within Ondo Town. This was closely followed by oral

interviews to capture the responses of those who do not have formal

education and so could not fill out the questionnaire. The researcher

thereafter resorted to random selection process from the data collected

through the questionnaire instrument.

The specific areas covered within Ondo Town for the purpose of this

research study were selected relaxation spots ‘joints’ where herbal

decoctions are sold covering five prominent areas of the town namely:

20

Odosida, Surulere, Yaba, Oka and Valentino. Adeyemi College Road

(Rainbow), Oke-Isegun Street, Ebido Street, Oke-Odunwo and Road 3

respectively were places where the questionnaires were administered.

3.3 THE STUDY SAMPLE

The research sample will involve five hundred people made up of fifty-

two brewers, one hundred and eight sellers and three hundred and forty

consumers; men or women randomly selected and approached within

Ondo Town which is the area of focus. Thus the population is divided

into the categories consisting of:

- Producers (brewers)

- Sellers and

- Consumers

Recognition was also given to the principle of fair representation and

based on this principle, a sample size of five hundred on the proportion

of each group within the total population was chosen. A total of five

hundred questionnaires were distributed to the respondents at randomly

selected spots within Ondo Town. A breakdown of the four hundred and

eighty five returned questionnaires is as follows:

Table 1: Analysis of Total Population and Selected Sample Size

DESIGNATION OF RESPONDENTS

POPULATION PERCENTAGE (%)

PRODUCERS (BREWERS)

52 10.7

SELLERS 108 19.2CONSUMERS 340 70.1TOTAL 485 100

From the total population of respondents, the producers represented a

total percentage of 10.7% (52), sellers accounted for 19.2% (108) while

consumers numbered 340 (70.1%). The result showed clearly that there

21

are many consumers of herbal decoctions within Ondo Town, which is a

justification for the need of the research study.

SEX OF CONSUMERS

S/NO CATEGORY OF RESPONDENT

NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS

PERCENTAGE (%)

1. Male 322 662. Female 163 34

Total 485 100Source: Field Survey, February 2010

It was found out that there are more male consumers than females.

From the result, 66% of the consumers were males while 34% were

females. This could be a result of the preference of alcohol as a suitable

solvent in the preparation of herbal decoctions (paraga), which is why

more males accounted for the highest number of consumers as against

females, given that males are taken into alcoholic and strong drinks than

females.

SEX OF SELLERS

S/NO CATEGORY OF RESPONDENT

NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS

PERCENTAGE (%)

1. Male 103 212. Female 382 79


More females sell herbal decoctions than males. From the distribution

above, only 21% of the sellers are males compared to 79% of the

respondents who were females. Females are usually an attraction point

and represent a better marketing class than their male counterparts. This

most probably justified the number of females being more that sell herbal

decoctions (paraga) than males as they are likely to attract more

customers, perhaps for their feminism.

22

3.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Questionnaires were distributed randomly to respondents in the area of

focus based on the sample size distribution. However, during the

process of distribution, some respondents rejected it while some

collected but did not return it and others collected and were also willing

to help if the need arose. Some of those that cooperated requested

more time to complete the assignment. The researcher later persuaded

other respondents to cooperate fully. At the end of the day, the numbers

of questionnaire returned by the respondents was encouraging.

3.5 DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

For the purpose of this research work, Ondo Town was solely

considered. The researcher chose the use of questionnaire and personal

interview to gather information, this is because experience has shown

that the above instrument happens to be the most appropriate when

collecting unique and exceptional facts. There were twenty four

questions to which each respondent reacted.

The questionnaires were divided into two sections. The first section

included the personal data of the respondents like the sex, the age and

educational qualification. The second section included twenty questions

to which the respondents reacted. There was also oral interviews to

collect further information that was not sufficiently catered to by the

questionnaires.

In designing the questionnaire, the questions were asked and drawn

from possible impact of education on the use of herbal decoctions. The

personal interviews were held with some respondents who were

illiterates and other consumers of herbal decoctions on whom it was

impossible to administer the questionnaire.

23

Questions asked were: names of plants that are commonly used to cure

a number of diseases, recipe formulation and method of administration.

The respondents cut across the social and educational strata of Ondo

Town.

3.6 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS

In the course of this research work, some hypotheses were formulated

based on the findings contained in the literature review. These

hypotheses will be tested in order to ascertain their validity.

HYPOTHESES

I. Ho: Educational level has no significant impact on herbal


H1: Educational level has significant impact on herbal


II. H0: There is no significant impact in the refining and production


H1: There is significant impact in the refining and production


III. H0: Herbal decoction is complementary to unorthodox medicine.

H1: Herbal decoction is not complementary to unorthodox

medicine.

IV H0: Herbal decoction has no serious side effects on consumers.

H1: Herbal decoction has serious side effects on consumers.

24

3.7 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

For this research work, the researcher employed the chi-square (X2)

method in testing the goodness of the various relationships between the

hypothesized variables as well as the five point-like Likert scale of

Agree, Strongly Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree and Undecided

instrument. Also, personal data in the study were analyzed using simple

percentages.

25

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS OF RESEARCH STUDY

Names of plants used for some of the various disease treatments are

presented in Tables A and B showing both scientific and vernacular

names (Hausa, Ibo and Yoruba), part of plants used, taxonomic family

names, reported chemical constituents and popular uses.

Table A: Plants commonly used for Herbal decoction preparations in Ondo.

BOTANICALNAMES

COMMON/LOCALNAMES

PARTS USED FAMILY

MALARIA (Iba)Enantia chlorantha

Awopa (Y), African yellow wood

Bark Annonaceae

Citrus aurantifolia Osan wewe (Y) , lime

Juice Rutaceae

Cymbopoqon citrates

Ewe tea (Y), Lemon grass

Leaf Poacease

Maqnifera indica Ewe mangoro (Y), Leaf AnacardiaceaeAzadirachta indica

Dogonyaro (H), Neem tree, Aforo-oyingbo (Y),Ogwu (I)

Leaf Meliaceae

PILE / BACK ACHE (Jedi / Opa eyin)Sabicea calycina Ogan (Y) Bark RubiaceaeLannea welwitschii

Orira (Y) Bark Anacardiaceae

Aristolochia albida

Akoigun (Y) Leaf Aristolochiaceae

Lophira lanceolata

Panhan pupa/funfun (Y)

Bark Ochnaceae

SyzygiumAromaticum

Konofuru (Y), clove Fruit Myrtaceae

TetrapleuraTetraptera

Aidan (Y) Fruit Mimosaceae

PEPPER SOUP: Control of menstruation.Capsicum annum Ata ijosi (Y) Fruit SolanaceaePiper quineense Iyere (Y) Seed PiperaceaeAllium sativum Ayu (Y) garlic Bulb Amaryllidaceae

26

Zingiber officinale

Ata ile (Y), Ginger Rhizome Zingiberaceae

SyzygiumAromaticum

Konofuru (Y), Clove Flower bud Myrtaceae

Ocimum gratissimum

Efirin (Y), Nchianwu (I)

Leaf Lamiaceae

Monodora myristica

Ariwo (Y), Ehuru (I) Fruit Annonaceae

Xylopia aethiopica

Eru (Y) Fruit Annonaceae

TONIC (Ogun eje)Sorghum bicolor Poroporo baba (Y), guinea corn Leaf Poaceae

ERECTION (Ale)SymphoniaGlobulifera

Ogolo (Y), Hog-gum tree Roots

Apiaceae

Carpolobea lutei Osun-sun (Y) Roots Polygalaceae

WATERY SPERM (Afato)SympholiaGlobulifera

Ogolo (Y) Roots Apiaceae

GONORRHOEA (Atosi)Citrullus colocynthis

Baara (Y) Fruit Cucurbitaceae

Allium sativum Ayu (Y), Garlic Bulb AmaryllidaceaeParinari sp. Abere (Y), Neou oil tree

FruitRosaceae

Table B:- Some drug plants used in Nigerian unorthodox medicine.

BotanicalNames

Family Part used

Constituents

Medicinal Uses

AlliumSativum

Amaryllidaceae Bulb Sulphur oils Vermifuge, intestinaldisinfectant,Vasodilator(arteriosclerosis),antibiotic,

Aristolochiaalbida

Aristolochiaceae Roots Leaves

Aristolochine Stomachic, tonic,fever (malaria),ingredients in guineaworm remedy, localanalgesic

27

Azadirachtaindica

Meliaceae Leaves,stem,seeds, rootbark

Margosa oils Bitter, anti pyretic,parasitic, skindiseases

Itrulluscolocynthis

Cucurbitaceae Fruit pulp Colocynthin,Citrullol,amorphousalkaloid

Purge (drastic, rarelyprescribed alone)

Cymbopogoncitratus

Poaceae Plants,Leaves

Essential oils Febrifuge

Malariateas, insect repellant,carminative(obsolete), source ofcitral for vitamin Asynthesis.

Enantiachlorantha

Annonaceae Stem bark,Roots

Berberine Fevers, sleepingsickness, malaria,dysentery

Lanneawelwitschii

Anacardiaceae Roots,bark,Leaves

N/A Wound dressing,dysentery

Lophiralanceolata

Ochnaceae Roots,bark,leaves,seeds

N/A Anti-viral,anti-inflammatory,fever, veneralinfections, jaundice,coughs

Magnifera indica

Anacardiaceae Bark, leaves

Tannin, resins

Astringent, skinleaves lesions, sore gums,diarrhea, piles

Ocimumgratissimum

Lamiaceae Leaves,roots

Febrifuge, colds,stomachic,carminative

Parinari sp. Rosaceae Stem, fruits,kernels

Parinariumsterol A & B

Purge, Diarrhoeaand dysentery, tonicwound dressing.

PiperGuineense

Piperaceae Fruits,leaves

Chavine,piperineCarminative,

restorative soup afterchild birth,embrocation forsprains, aromatic.

28

SabiaceaCalycina

Rubiaceae Roots N/A Wound dressing.rheumatism, panacea

Symphoniaglobulifera

Apiaceae Fruits,leaves,exudates

N/A Diuretic, wounddressing, venerealdiseases, stomachic,tonic.

Syzygiumaromaticum

Myrtaceae Buds,Volatile oil,

Volatile oil, gallotonic acid,Caryophyllin

Toothache, mouthsores, coughs,wound dressing.

Tetrapleuratetraptera

Mimosaceae Barks,fruits,wholeplant

Mimosine,saponin

Emetic, tonic,venereal diseases,fever, rheumatism,flatulence, jaundice,convulsions.

ZingiberOfficinale

Zingiberaceae Rhizome,roots

Gingerol,essential oil

Indigestion, coughs,stimulant, antimicrobialcarminative,flavouring agent.

4.2 DATA ANALYSIS

Since the questionnaire were designed to facilitate easy analysis, it is

necessary to follow the system as itemized in the questionnaire. The

method of testing the hypotheses would be based on Chi-square (X2)

tests.

29

TABLE A1: AGE OF RESPONDENTS

S/NO AGE GROUP NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS

PERCENTAGE (%)

1. Below 25 years 29 62. 25 – 34 years 121 253. 35 – 44 years 146 304. 45 – 54 years 170 355. 55 and above 19 4


Adults generally patronize and their religious beliefs (Islamic and

Christianity) is not a barrier. There are very few respondents that fall

below 25 years (6%), while 25% are between 25 – 34 years, 30% are

between 35 – 44 years, 35% are between 45 – 54 years and the

remainder 4% and from 55 and above. From the table as observed, the

highest group of consumers fall between the age group range of 45-54

years and 35-44 years respectively. This is probably because they are

the working class cadre and perhaps consume herbal decoctions to help

them cope with the stress and demands of their work places as well as

to serve as a stimulant and energy booster.

TABLE A2: MARITAL STATUS OF RESPONDENTS

S/NO

MARITAL STATUS NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS

PERCENTAGE(%)

1. Single 330 682. Married 82 173. Divorced 58 124. Widowed/er 15 3


Rate of production, sales and consumption cuts across the various

groups. Almost all categories be they single, married, divorced or

widowed/widowers. As can be observed in the above distribution where 30

about 68% of the respondents are single, about 17% are married, 12%

are divorced and 3% are widows or widowers.

TABLE A3: EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION OF RESPONDENTS

S/NO EDUCATIONAL

QUALIFICATION

NUMBER OF

RESPONDENTS

PERCENTAGE

(%)

1. WASC/GCE 215 44

2. OND/NCE 52 11

3. HND/B.Sc/B.A/B.Ed 34 7

4. M.Sc/M.Ed/M.A/PhD 34 7

5. No Formal Education 150 31

Total 485 100

Source: Field Survey, February 2010

Automobile mechanics, vehicle drivers, bus conductors, traders,

uniformed force and para-military force men and women, corporate

individuals and highly placed people in the society all use herbal

medicinal decoctions. Educated people cumulatively accounted for 69%

of the respondents under survey while 31% had no formal education.

SECTION B

The following analyzed data are the information collected by the twenty

four investigating statements of the five hundred questionnaires

instrument used for the collection of data, out of which four hundred and

eighty five were returned and deemed valid for the purpose of this

research study.

31

TABLE 4: RESEARCH QUESTION 1.

Has the level of education been a determinant factor in the

consumption of herbal decoction?

VARIABLES

S/N ITEMS A SA D SD U

1. Only uneducated persons consume herbal decoctions and concoctions (paraga).

112 44 267 53 9

2. Educated individuals, illiterates and artisans are usually the target consumers of herbal decoction.

180 52 78 97 78

3. Education is a key to mastering the art and craft of herbal decoction (paraga) brewing.

204 99 154 12 16

Source: Field Survey, January 2010.

From the data obtained in item 1 in the table above, 9% (44) of the

respondents strongly agreed to the statement that only uneducated

persons consume herbal decoctions and concoctions. Another 23%

(112) agreed, while 11% (53) strongly disagreed and 55% (267)

disagreed. 2% (9) of the respondents were undecided concerning the

statement.

From item 2, though the assertion covers almost all categories of herbal

decoction consumers, about 19% (52) of the respondents strongly

agreed, 37% (180) agreed and 12% (78) strongly disagreed. Another

20% (97) disagreed while 12% (78) were undecided.

Item 3 above shows that 20% (99) of the respondents strongly agreed

that education is a key to mastering the art and craft of herbal decoction

brewing. 42% (204) agreed while 2% (12) strongly disagreed. Another

32% (154) disagreed while 4% (16) were undecided if education had a

part in mastering the art and craft of herbal decoction brewing.

32

TABLE 5: RESEARCH QUESTION 2

What are the benefits of herbal decoction to the society?

VARIABLES


4. The business of medicinal herb selling is an alternative source of income for the educated.

165 44 190 33 53

5. Consumption of herbal decoctions is dependent on mood swings among the educated.

40 23 102 17

8

14

2

6. Viability of herbal decoction 184 97 73 34 97


Although any method or means of sustaining or alternating one’s income

is desirable within reasonable limits, from item 4 in the table above, it

can be observed that a total of 43% (209) of the respondents agreed

that the business of medicinal herb selling is an alternative source of

income for the educated, while another 46% (223) disagreed. 11% (53)

of the respondents could not clearly make the difference either way.

Item 5 shows that a total of 13% (63) agreed to the use of herbal

decoctions being dependent of mood swings among the educated. 58%

(280) others disagreed asserting it was a deliberate decision while 29%

(142) were not sure as to the reason for the use of herbal decoctions

among the educated.

The business of medicinal herb selling which operates throughout the

day in Ondo Town is the only source of income to 60% (291) of the

sellers as highlighted in item 6 whereas the remaining 20% (97)

combined the business with other trade. 20% (97) however are not truly

into the business for any monetary derivation but to maintain perhaps a

cultural heritage and identity.

33


Has the herbal decoction sector had impact on improving

health standard?

VARIABLES


7. Herbal concoctions are much preferred to modern medicine.

194 97 121 2 49

8. Herbal concoctions help maintain the health standard of the people.

280 65 92 48 -


From item 7 in the table above 60% (291) said that they prefer herbal

concoctions to modern medicine (i.e. strongly agreed and agreed), 30%

(123) preferred orthodox medicine to the practice whereas 10% (49) of

the respondents was indifferent.

In item 8, it can be observed that 13% (65) of the respondents strongly

agreed that herbal concoctions help maintain the health standard of the

people while 58% (280) agreed. Only a total of 29 % (92) of the

respondents thought otherwise.


What are the problems associated with the production, sale

and consumption of herbal concoctions?

VARIABLES


9. The government should be allowed to regulate and control medicinal herbal decoction production, sale and consumption.

198 12

0

56 33 78

10. The regulation and control of medicinal herbal decoction production, sale and consumption should be left to the trade union.

271 56 78 56 24


34

From the harrowing experiences by certain people from the hands of

fraudulent and unscrupulous elements making merchandise out of the

lives of the citizens, it is evident from the above distribution in item 9 that

majority of the respondents; 318 (66%) would that the government

should be allowed to regulate and control medicinal herbal decoction

production, sale and consumption as against 18% (89) that disagreed.

16% (78) of them were indifferent.

Herbal practitioners also have a trade union that regulates their

activities. The resource herb-men and women responded that the

business facilitated increased sales of their herbal materials as such an

overwhelming majority as shown in item 10 in the table above,. 68%

(327) agreed that the regulation and control of medicinal herbal

decoction production, sale and consumption should be left to the trade

union. 27% (134) disagreed while 5% (24) were undecided whether to

leave the regulation in the hands of the government or the trade unions.


Should herbal decoction be accepted as an alternative to

modern medicine?

VARIABLES


11. Herbal medicinal decoctions are the only curative solution to HIV/AIDS.

81 50 122 20

7

25

12. Herbal decoctions and concoctions are complementary to unorthodox medicine.

291 97 87 10 -


Item 11 in the table above displays the assertion that herbal medicinal

decoctions are the only curative solution to HIV/AIDS with a distribution

of 10% (50) for strongly agree, 17% (81) agree, 43% (207) strongly 35

disagree, 25% (122) disagree and 5% (25) undecided about the sole

curative potency of herbal medicinal concoctions.

About its complementary role to unorthodox medicine as indicated in

item 12 in the table above, 80% (388) supported its assisting

significance while 20% (97) of the respondents did not agree.


Is alcohol a more preferred solvent in the preparation of

herbal concoctions?

VARIABLES


13. Alcohol is a better solvent for herbal decoction than water.

200 91 34 10 15

0

14. Water is the most suitable solvent for herbal concoctions.

49 97 218 72 49


On the response as to alcohol being used as a preferable solvent as

highlighted in item 13 in the table above, 60% (291) of the respondents

strongly agreed and agreed cummulatively. 2% (10) strongly disagreed

and 7% (34) disagreed while 31% (150) might use alcohol or water

depending on their mood as at the time of administration.

A total of 30% (146) of the respondents chose water as the most

suitable solvent for herbal concoctions, while a total of 60% (291) refuted

the choice of water and another 10% (48) said it made no difference

whatever solvent is used as shown in item 14 in the above table.

4.3 TEST AND INTERPRETATION OF HYPOTHESIS

36

Hypothesis I

Ho = NULL HYPOTHESISEducational level has no significant impact on herbal decoction

consumption.

H1 = ALTERNATE HYPOTHESISEducational level has significant impact on herbal decoction

consumption.

TABLE 10

VARIABLE POPULATION PERCENTAGEStrongly Agree 44 9Agree 112 23Strongly Disagree 53 11Disagree 267 55Undecided 9 2Total 485 100

The expected frequency is calculated by

Grand Total _ Number of Classification, which gives

485 = 97 5

This is however used to test the hypothesis

Table 11: One way classification of Chi-Square calculation

VARIABLE O E O – E (O – E)2 (O – E)2/EStrongly Agree 44 97 -53 2809 28.958Agree 112 97 15 225 2.319Strongly Disagree

53 97 -44 1936 19.958

Disagree 267 97 170 28900 297.938Undecided 9 97 -88 7744 79.835Total 485 485 0 41614 429.008

From the above interpretation,

37

E = Expected Value,

O = Observed Value.

. . . to get the expected value = Rate Total x Column TotalGrand Total

Using the Chi –Square statistic formula, X2 = ∑ (O – E)2

EX2 = ∑ (O – E)2

E = 429.008

Then to get the Degree of freedom = Number of rows minus one

= 5 – 1 = 4

The critical value of X2 with 4 degree of freedom at 0.05 significant level

is 9.49

Decision Rule

Reject H0 where X2 (computed X2) is greater than X2 0.05(9.49).

Interpretation

We will therefore reject H0 and accept H1 that Educational level has

significant impact on herbal decoction consumption.

Hypothesis II

H0 = NULL HYPOTHESIS

There is no significant impact in the refining and production


H1 = ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

There is significant impact in the refining and production process

with exposure to education.

Table 12

38



Grand Total _Number of Classification, which gives

485 = 97 5



VARIABLE O E O – E (O – E)2 (O – E)2/EStrongly Agree 99 97 2 4 0.041Agree 204 97 107 11449 118.030Strongly Disagree

12 97 -85 7225 74.484



E = Expected Value,

O = Observed Value.



EX2 = ∑ (O – E)2

E = 293.688Then to get the Degree of freedom = Number of rows minus one

39

= 5 – 1 = 4


is 9.49

Decision Rule


Interpretation

We will therefore reject H0 and accept H1 – There is significant impact in

the refining and production process with exposure to education.

Hypothesis III

H0 = NULL HYPOTHESIS

Herbal decoction is not complementary to unorthodox medicine.


Herbal decoction is complementary to unorthodox medicine.

Table 14

VARIABLE POPULATION PERCENTAGEStrongly Agree 97 20Agree 291 60Strongly Disagree 10 2Disagree 87 18Undecided - -Total 485 100



485 = 97 5


Table 15: One way classification of Chi-Square calculation40

VARIABLE O E O – E (O – E)2 (O – E)2/EStrongly Agree 97 97 0 0 0Agree 291 97 194 37636 388Strongly Disagree

10 97 -87 7569 78.031

Disagree 87 97 -10 100 1.031Undecided - 97 -97 9409 97Total 485 485 0 54714 564.062


E = Expected Value,

O = Observed Value.



EX2 = ∑ (O – E)2

E = 564.062


= 5 – 1 = 4


is 9.49

Decision Rule


Interpretation

We will therefore reject H0 and accept H1 – that herbal decoction is

complementary to unorthodox medicine.

Hypothesis IV

H0 = NULL HYPOTHESIS41

Herbal decoction has serious side effects on consumers.


Herbal decoction has no serious side effects on consumers.

Table 16




485 = 97 5



VARIABLE O E O – E (O – E)2 (O – E)2/EStrongly Agree 120 97 23 529 5.454Agree 111 97 14 196 2.021Strongly Disagree

23 97 -74 5476 56.454



E = Expected Value,

O = Observed Value.


42


EX2 = ∑ (O – E)2

E = 125.671


= 5 – 1 = 4


is 9.49

Decision Rule


Interpretation

We will therefore reject H0 and accept H1 – that herbal decoction has no

serious side effects on consumers.

CHAPTER FIVE

43

5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 SUMMARY

Some of the set back of herbal decoction consumption in Ondo Town

include problems of standardization, negative attitude of enlightened

people towards use of medicinal preparations probably because they

can afford the alternative method, lack of scientific proof of its efficacy,

problem of plant misidentification and unwillingness to share expertise

with people (Kunle, 2000; Sanusi, 2002; Sofowora, 1982). However its

advantages include the fact that it is complementary to unorthodox

medicine, it is relatively cheap, there is ready availability of raw

materials, it is a potential source of new drugs and of course, a source of

cheap starting products for the synthesis of known drugs. The sale and

use of medicinal preparations should be encouraged and supported by

government.

5.2 CONCLUSION

Used correctly, herbs can help treat a variety of conditions and in some

cases may have fewer side effects than some conventional medications.

But because they are unregulated, herbal products are often mislabeled

and may contain additives and contaminants that aren’t listed on the

label. Some herbs may cause allergic reactions or interact with

conventional drugs, and some are toxic if used improperly or at high

doses.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

Taking herbs on ones own increases ones risk, so it is important to

consult a doctor or pharmacist before taking herbal medicines. Some

examples of adverse reactions from certain popular herbs are described

below.44

St. John's wort (a shrubby, perennial weed that has been used as

an antidepressant) can cause your skin to be more sensitive to the

sun's ultraviolet rays, and may cause an allergic reaction, stomach

upset, fatigue, and restlessness. Clinical studies have found that

St. John's wort also interferes with the effectiveness of many

drugs, including the blood thinner warfarin (Couamdin), protease

inhibitors for HIV, birth control pills, certain asthma drugs, and

many other medications. In addition, St. John's wort should not be

taken with prescribed antidepressant medication. NAFDAC has

issued a public health advisory concerning many of these

interactions (Chavez M.L, Chavez P.I, 1997).

Kava kava has been linked to liver toxicity. Kava has been taken

off the market in several countries because of liver toxicity.

Valerian may cause sleepiness, and in some people it may even

have the unexpected effect of overstimulating instead of sedating.

Garlic, ginkgo, feverfew, and ginger, among other herbs, may

increase the risk of bleeding.

Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) may increase the risk of

seizures in people who have seizure disorders.

Currently, no organization or agency regulates the manufacture or

certifies the labeling of herbal preparations. This means you can't be

sure that the amount of the herb contained in the bottle, or even from

dose to dose, is the same as what is stated on the label.

The following recommendations are therefore put forward with the hope

that the concerned authorities and individual users will take necessary

action and be better informed respectively in the use of herbal

decoctions.

45

1. Some herbal preparations are standardized, meaning that the

preparation is guaranteed to contain a specific amount of the

active ingredients of the herb. However, it is still important to ask

companies making standardized herbal products about their

product's guarantee. It is important to talk to your doctor or an

expert in herbal medicine about the recommended doses of any

herbal products.

2. Herbalists, chiropractors, naturopathic physicians, pharmacists,

medical doctors, and practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine

all may use herbs to treat illness. Naturopathic physicians believe

that the body is continually striving for balance and that natural

therapies can support this process. They should be well trained in

at least a 4-year, postgraduate institution (e.g. Iris Medical School

of Traditional Medicine, Ogba, Lagos) that combine courses in

conventional medical science (such as pathology, microbiology,

pharmacology, and surgery) with clinical training in herbal

medicine, homeopathy, nutrition, and lifestyle counseling.

REFERENCES

Ababio, O.Y (1990). Organic Chemistry in: New School Chemistry, Africana-Fep, Publishers Limited, 1st edition, pp. 378-380.

46

Burkill, H.M. (1995). The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. Vol. 1-4. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 960pp.

Chavez M.L and Chavez P.I (1997). Saint John's Wort. Hosp Pharm 1997 Dec;32:1621-8, 1631-2.

Chiej, R. (2004). The MacDonald Encyclopaedia of Medicinal Plants. MacDonald books, Sydney. 447pp.

Combest, W.L (1998). An overview of the medicinal uses of Zingiber officinale (ginger). US Pharm 1998 Feb;23:74, 79, 83-4, 86.

Dalziel, J.M. (1937). The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. The Crown Agents for the colonies, London. 612pp.

Gbile, Z.O. (1984). Vernacular names of Nigerian Plants in Yoruba. Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, Ibadan.101 pp.

Gillespie, S.G (1997). Herbal drugs and phytomedicinal agents. Pharm Times, Vol.12, Pg.45-47

Howanitz et al, (1979). Effects of Herbal Concoctions on Psychological Conduct. British Pharmaceutical Codex, 1979

Heiligenstein, E and Guenther, G (1998). Over-the-counter psychotropics: a review of melatonin, St John's wort, valerian, and kava-kava. J Am Coll Health

Historical overview of herbal beverages production.http://www.drugs.Indiana.edu/publications/ncadi/primer/historic.htm 1992(accessed Febr. 14, 2010).

Isawumi, M. (1990). Yoruba system of Plant Nomenclature and its Implications in traditional medicine. Nigerian Field. 55: 165-171.

Iwu, M. (1993). Handbook of African Medicinal Plants. CRC Press, Inc., Florida. 435pp.

Kafaru, E. (2002). Immense help from nature’s workshop. Elikaf Health Services Ltd., Lagos. 212pp.

Kunle, O. (2000). The production of pharmaceuticals from medicinal

47

plants and their products. Nigerian Journal of Natural Products and Medicine. 4: 9-12.

Nwosu, M.O (1998). Aspects of ethnobotanical medicine in southeast Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Natural Products and Medicine. 4: 32-34.

Oliver, B. (1960). Medicinal Plants in Nigeria. Nigerian College of Arts, Science and Technology, Ibadan. 138pp.

Sanusi, S.(2002). Relevance and potential hazards of herbalism: Globalisation Biodiversity and Conservation - Proceedings of Botanical Society of Nigeria, Pp. 27-28.

Sofowora, A. (1982). Medicinal Plants and Traditional medicine in Africa. John Wiley and sons, New York. 251 pp.

The British Pharmaceutical Codex (1979), 11th edition. The Pharmaceutical Press, London, p14.

Wambebe C, (1998). Development and production of standardized phytomedicines, National Institute for Pharmaceutical, Abuja, Nigeria.

Wynn, R.L and Meiller, T.F (1998). A brief survey of herbal medicines and other remedies. Sanjay Amanpour & Sons. New Delhi, India.

APPENDIX

Biology Department,Obafemi Awolowo University

48

Adeyemi College of Education,P.M.B.520,Ondo,Ondo State.

Dear Sir/Madam,

I am a final year student of Biology in the above named institution. In fulfillment of the basic requirement for the award of a degree of Bachelor of Science in Biology Education (B.Sc Ed), I am expected to undertake a research work.

In compliance, Ondo Town has been chosen as my case study to highlight the impact of education on the production, sale and use of herbal decoctions and concoctions by Nigerians

I shall therefore by grateful if you can kindly provide the information required in the questionnaire below as candidly as possible.

I assure you that any information provided will be kept confidential and used solely for academic purpose.

Thank you for your anticipated cooperation.

Akinlosotu Ayokunle Olalekan

QUESTIONNAIRE

SECTION A –Personal information

Please tick () as appropriate in the space(s) provided below.1. Name: Chief/Mr./Mrs/Miss/Dr…………………………………………………..2. Sex:

(a) Male [ ] (b) Female [ ]

3. Age Group(a) Below 25 years [ ](b) 25 – 34 years [ ](c) 35 – 44 years [ ]

49

(d) 45 – 54 years [ ](e) 55 and above [ ]

4. Marital Status: (a) Single [ ](b) Married [ ](c) Divorced [ ](d) Widowed/er [ ]

5. Educational Qualification

(a) WASC/GCE [ ](b) OND/NCE [ ](c) HND/B.Sc/B.A/B.Ed [ ](d) M.Sc/M.Ed/M.A/PhD [ ](e) No Formal Education [ ]

SECTION B

Please read the following questions carefully and tick () as appropriate.

Key: SA=Strongly Agree, A=Agree, U=Uncertain, SD=Strongly Disagree and D=Disagree

S/N QUESTION SA A U SD D6. Only uneducated persons consume herbal

decoctions and concoctions.7. Educated individuals, illiterates and artisans

are usually the target consumers of herbal decoction.

8. Education is a key to mastering the art and craft of herbal decoction brewing (paraga).

9. How frequent do you consume herbal decoctions? (a) Daily

(b) Weekly(c) Fortnightly(d) Monthly

`10. How efficacious are these decoctions?(a) Very efficacious(b) Moderately efficacious(c) Not efficacious

50

(d) Not worth taking11. These herbal decoctions and concoctions are

complementary to unorthodox medicine.12. These herbal concoctions are much preferred

to modern medicine.13. Alcohol is a better solvent for herbal decoction

than water.14. Water is the most suitable solvent for herbal

concoctions.15. Consumption of herbal decoctions is

dependent on mood swings among the educated.

16. Production and sale of herbal decoction is carried out by only educated people.

17. The business of medicinal herb selling is an alternative source of income for the educated.

18. The government should be allowed to regulate and control medicinal herbal decoction production, sale and consumption.

19. The regulation and control of medicinal herbal decoction production, sale and consumption should be left to the trade union.

20. Herbal decoction production is a viable business.

21. Herbal decoctions do not have to be taken in specific dosages.

22. Herbal concoctions help maintain the health standard of the people.

23. Herbal medicinal decoctions are the only curative solution to HIV/AIDS.

24. Herbal decoctions have no side effects on consumers.

51

AYO

Documents

research project

study method

study sample

herbal medicines

study significance

present study

study area

study statement