Automaticity combine..

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Automatic Processes

&

Memory in Social Cognition

By: The Anonymi

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Implicit Recollection

• Implicit versus explicit memory

– Implicit Memory: the ability to perform motor skills and procedures (e.g., typing, riding a bike) as well as certain cognitive skills (e.g., completing word fragments, answering questions correctly with no awareness of how we knew the answer).

– Explicit Memory: conscious awareness of the material that has been recalled, usually with a fair idea of how that knowledge was gained.

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Historical BackgroundImplicit Memory Research

• During 1880s, implicit memory was studied in the context of phenomena such as automatic writing and neurological amnesias.

• Ebbinghaus’ “savings score”

• Terms implicit and explicit memory coined in 1924.

• Freud and Janet: theories of psychopathology on the basis of implicit memory.– However, implicit memory not that same as

“repressed memory”.

• Once 1880s heyday had passed, nearly all research on human memory focused on explicit recollection.

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Implicit Memory ResearchAmnesics

• Edouard Claparede (1911)

• H.M.– Ability to perform pursuit rotor and mirror

tracing tests.– Knows where the bathroom is at the

laboratory he visits occasionally.

• Amnesics can:– Complete Tower of Hanoi puzzle– Gollin figure test– Cognitive mapping (see H.M.)

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Implicit Memory ResearchAmnesics cont.

• Amnesics remember:– Frequently practiced sports routines (e.g., skiing)

– Learn fictitious information about people

– Produce bits and pieces of recently presented stories

– Acquire preferences for previously heard melodies

– Spot hidden figures more quickly after single exposure

• Procedural preservation also seen in people who experience alcohol-induced blackouts, drug-related amnesias, psychogenic amnesias, and DID.

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Implicit Memory ResearchNormal Individuals

• Research into implicit recollection came into the limelight via study of lexical access.

• Paradigms:– Perceptual identification– Word fragment completion– Stem completion– Homophone spelling– Lexical decision

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Implicit Memory ResearchNormal Individuals cont.

• Perceptual identification test:– 30 ms view of word; fast enough so subjects can

make out only dim flash of light– When asked to guess from list of words, subjects

can usually correctly guess when word was primed

• Word completion– Study list of words (might include “dimple”)– “d _ _ p _ e”

• Stem completion– Similar to word completion (might include

“concept”)– “con______”

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Implicit Memory ResearchNormal Individuals cont.

• Homophone spelling– Write down homophones (e.g., “pare”)

– Implicit memory displayed when spelling (pare, pair, pear) duplicates word originally studied.

• Lexical decision:– Determine very rapidly string of

“known” and “unknown” words (e.g., “barker” or “bekran”)

– Response times faster for words that were primed.

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Implicit Memory ResearchNormal Individuals cont.

• Must be careful to rule out possibility that normal subjects might use explicit knowledge during an implicit test.

• Teasing implicit and explicit memory apart:– When debriefed, subjects say they did not strategize

in any way.

– Subjects are often as surprised as the experimenter to learn that their “guessing game” performance was good.

– Results compatible w/ implicit memory persist when the opportunity to strategize is strictly controlled.

– Implicit and explicit memory tests produce statistically independent results within the same subjects for the same materials.

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Differences between Implicit and Explicit Operations

• Explicit Memory:– Deep, elaborate forms of processing such as

visual imagery, semantic conceptualization, and intricate application.

– Seldom affected by the sensory modality through which info. came.

– Decays rapidly over time when tested in certain ways.

– Best when stimuli are generated by subjects rather than presented in isolation.

– Hampered by alcohol.

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Differences between Implicit and Explicit Operations

• Implicit Memory– Not aided by deep or elaborate

processing.– Bound by modality.– Perseveres with measurements that

produce rapid decay of explicit memory.– Interference has little effect.– Isolated stimuli are best at priming

themselves.– Not hampered by alcohol.

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Theories of Implicit Remembrance

• Schacter– Implicit memory is subserved by a special

neurological system.

– Implicit memories are sustained despite the destruction of brain structures that are known to play a significant role in creating explicit memories.

– Implicit priming does not seem to fall within the procedural system.

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Theories of Implicit Remembrance

• Roediger– Not necessary to postulate about an

independent brain system for every dissociation know to exist in memory literature.

– Differences in cognitive processing, not brain structures, that cause dissociations to occur in tests of implicit and explicit memories.

– Bottom-up versus top-down processing.

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Body Memories

• Body “remembers” what the mind forgets.

• Some suggest that muscles, tendons, joints, and organs of the human body are capable of remembering information, especially traumatic information.

• Troubled individuals occasionally experience physical pain but that does not mean the muscles have memory.

• Individuals who experience somatic symptoms have indelible memories of the traumatic event.

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Definition (Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977):

Conscious Processes:

-With awareness

-Controllable

-Effortful

-With intention

No longer fully accepted. (Gilbert & Hixon, 1991)

Automatic Processes (opposite):

-

-Uncontrollable

-

-Without intention

Outside of awareness

Efficient

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Historical examples of unawareness:

-Aronson and Mills, 1959

-painful initiation rites

-Nisbett and Wilson, 1977

-product placements

-subtle cue (or clue) solves puzzle

-Bargh, Chen, and Burrows, 1996

-prime rudeness-> interruption

Considered weak examples.

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Stricter methods-Implicit memory:

-Schacter, 1987, 1996

-amnesic patients

-Tulving, Schacter, and Stark, 1982

-word-stem completion faster, recognition worse after week

-Brown and Murphy, 1989

-unintentional plagiarism (source amnesia)

-Jacoby et al., 1989

-becoming famous after 24 hours (poor source monitoring)

Subliminal?

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Stricter methods-Subliminal Perception:

-Debner and Jacoby, 1994

-500 ms-successfully suppressed word -50 ms-unsuccessful.

Completed word-stem.

-Bargh and Pietromonaco, 1982

-hostile words leads to hostile interpretations of ambiguous behaviors.

Further demonstrations?

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Stricter methods-Mere Exposure:

-Kunst-Wilson and Zajonc, 1980

-ambiguous shapes

-Bornstein and D’Agostino, 1992

-more likely to occur if stimuli are presented subliminally

-Bargh et al., 1995

-individual differences: sex and power

-Fazio et al., 1995

-African-American faces.

What of efficiency?

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Stricter methods-Scarce Time/Resources:

-Neely, 1977

-birds and body parts

-Fazio et al., 1986 & Bargh et al., 1996

-affect priming

-Gilbert et al., 1989

-Categorization, characterization, and correction.

-Wegner, 1994

-intentional distraction, automatic search

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hill

home

hill

home

bus bus

child child

roof roof

drive drive

little little

brick brick

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Summary:

-Many aspects of our life are automatically controlled.

-But cultural differences? (e.g., Choi & Nisbett…)

-Automaticity is primarily studied under the contexts of it being outside of our awareness (subliminal priming) and during times when efficiency is needed or cognitive resources are low.

-How do we acquire automatic or “auto-motive” (c.f. Bargh) behaviors?