Article on Sustainable Transport Systems

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“SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT SYSTEMS”

HARITA SALVI URBAN PLANNING

SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS

We consider the continuing increase in the use and density of automobiles (more vehicles with fewer people in them traveling greater distances over proportionally shorter roads) in relation to transportation sustainability and quality of life. The social dilemma perspective views this trend as the outcome of an unfortunate preference for short-term gains by car users at the cost of long-term losses to society. Approaches to measuring quality of life, its relation to sustainable transport alternatives, and the potential implications for informing policy, are considered.

Sustainable transport (or green transport) is a concept, an ideology and, in some countries, a governmental policy that consists of strengthening or replacing the current transport systems of an urban/suburban area with more fuel-efficient, space-saving and healthy lifestyle-promoting alternatives. The term refers to any means of transport with low impact on the environment, and includes human or animal muscle-powered vehicles, low-carbon fueled vehicles, any kind of vehicle using a renewable source of energy for its propulsion. The most common usage of green transport is walking. A common form of green transport vehicles are hybrid vehicles. Hybrid vehicles use an internal combustion engine combined with an electric engine. Bio-fuel powered vehicles use fuels derived from plant sources, such as vegetable oil, bio-diesel, or bio-alcohol for their propulsion.

Sustainable transport systems make a positive contribution to the environmental, social and economic sustainability of the communities they serve. Transport systems exist to provide social and economic connections, and people quickly take up the opportunities offered by increased mobility.[1] The advantages of increased mobility need to be weighed against the environmental, social and economic costs that transport systems pose.

Transport systems have significant impacts on the environment, accounting for between 20% and 25% of world energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions.[2] Greenhouse gas emissions from transport are increasing at a faster rate than any other energy using sector.[3] Road transport is also a major contributor to local air pollution and smog.[4]

The social costs of transport include road crashes, air pollution, physical inactivity,[5], time taken away from the family while commuting and vulnerability to fuel price increases. Many of these negative impacts fall disproportionately on those

social groups who are also least likely to own and drive cars.[6] Traffic congestion imposes economic costs by wasting people's time and by slowing the delivery of goods and services.

Traditional transport planning aims to improve mobility, especially for vehicles, and may fail to adequately consider wider impacts. But the real purpose of transport is access - to work, education, goods and services, friends and family - and there are proven techniques to improve access while simultaneously reducing environmental and social impacts, and managing traffic congestion.[7] Communities which are successfully improving the sustainability of their transport networks are doing so as part of a wider program of creating more vibrant, livable, sustainable cities.

The following set of principles were developed by Canada's National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy through a consultative process with a number of Canadian transportation stakeholders. They were developed at the request of Canada's Minister of the Environment in order to serve as a starting point for a discussion about principles at the Conference. These principles have been discussed by the National Round Table, though they have not been formally endorsed. They are designed to encourage thought and discussion about some of the key challenges facing the transportation sector.

Problem Statement Context Guiding Principles Strategic Directions

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Our current transportation system is not on a sustainable path. Our admirable achievements in terms of mobility have come at some considerable environmental as well as social and economic cost. The challenge now is to find ways of meeting our transportation needs that are environmentally sound, socially equitable and economically viable.

CONTEXT

Humans are inherently mobile, and in most societies, mobility is both highly valued personally and essential for social and economic reasons. Over time, however, as population has increased, cities have grown, and globalization and free trade have

increased the regional and international movement of people and goods, our transportation infrastructure and systems have expanded dramatically. The cars, trucks, buses, subways, trains, airplanes, ships and ferries that we use to move ourselves and our goods today have significant environmental implications in terms of inputs, emissions, and land use.

In many countries, transportation infrastructure is increasingly devoted to automobiles. This increased use of the private automobile is a major contributor to air quality problems and global climate change. While emission rates on a per mile driven basis have been substantially reduced in the last two decades, the enormous increase in vehicle use has offset these gains.

In addition, while the emphasis on roadways for cars has increased mobility and independence for many, it has had a negative impact on the quality of life of others. Those far less able to access automobiles (the poor, the disabled, women, the elderly etc.) have fewer transportation options. Road infrastructure has tended to make more sustainable options such as walking and bicycling more difficult to use, and it often detracts from the aesthetic appeal of our urban and rural environments, and consumes land that is extremely valuable for other uses (for example agriculture). In many urban centers, however, transit infrastructure has not had the capital funding necessary to provide commuters with a suitable alternative to the use of the automobile.

The health and safety of people have also been threatened by air quality problems and traffic accidents associated with increased car and truck use. In larger urban centers, traffic congestion causes losses in productivity, quality of life and health (increased stress).

While the transportation sector is an important economic sector, contributing both directly and indirectly to jobs and export earnings, the costs of maintaining and updating transportation infrastructure and services continue to rise, and many governments can no longer afford to support this kind and pace of infrastructure development.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES

The aim is to develop transportation systems that maintain or improve human and ecosystem well-being together - not one at the expense of the other. Due to varying environmental, social and economic conditions between and within countries, there

is no single best way to achieve sustainable transportation systems. A set of guiding principles can be described, however, upon which transition strategies should be built.

We recognize the fundamental importance of,

ACCESS:

Access to people, places, goods and services is important to the social and economic well being of communities. Transportation is a key means, but not the only means, through which access can be achieved.

Principle #1: Access

People are entitled to reasonable access to other people, places, goods and services.

PEOPLE AND COMMUNITIES:

Transportation systems are a critical element of a strong economy, but can also contribute directly to building community and enhancing quality of life.

Principle #2: Equity

Nation states and the transportation community must strive to ensure social, interregional and inter-generational equity, meeting the basic transportation-related needs of all people including women, the poor, the rural, and the disabled.

Principle #3: Health and Safety

Transportation systems should be designed and operated in a way that protects the health (physical, mental and social well-being) and safety of all people, and enhances the quality of life in communities.

Principle #4: Individual Responsibility

All individuals have a responsibility to act as stewards of the natural environment, undertaking to make sustainable choices with regard to personal movement and consumption.

Principle #5: Integrated Planning

Transportation decision makers have a responsibility to pursue more integrated approaches to planning.

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ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY:

Human activities can overload the environment's finite capacity to absorb waste, physically modify or destroy habitats, and use resources more rapidly than they can be regenerated or replaced. Efforts must be made to develop transportation systems that minimize physical and biological stress, staying within the assimilative and regenerative capacities of ecosystems, and respecting the habitat requirements of other species.

Principle #6: Pollution Prevention

Transportation needs must be met without generating emissions that threaten public health, global climate, biological diversity or the integrity of essential ecological processes.

Principle #7: Land and Resource Use

Transportation systems must make efficient use of land and other natural resources while ensuring the preservation of vital habitats and other requirements for maintaining biodiversity

ECONOMIC VIABILITY:

Sustainable transportation systems must be cost effective. If adjustment costs are incurred in the transition to more sustainable transportation systems they should be equitably shared, just as current costs should be more equitably shared.

Principle #8: Fuller Cost Accounting

Transportation decision makers must move as expeditiously as possible toward fuller cost accounting, reflecting the true social, economic and environmental costs, in order to ensure users pay an equitable share of costs.

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STRATEGIC DIRECTIONS

A number of strategic directions are proposed for moving toward sustainability in transportation. Many of these strategic actions respond to more than one of the guiding principles outlined above.

ACCESS:

Demand Management

Reduce the need for travel while protecting social and economic needs for access by changing urban form, promoting new communications technologies, and developing more efficient packaging etc.

Diversifying Options

Improve access by diversifying transportation options, giving people more choices as to how they meet their access needs.

PEOPLE AND COMMUNITIES

Urban Planning and Transportation Planning

Concentrate urban growth, limit sprawl and provide for more mixed land use through urban structure and land use policies. This would reduce demand (especially for automobile trips) by moving origins and destinations closer together and also help reduce habitat destruction and loss of agricultural and recreational lands.

Give priority to less polluting, lower impact modes of transportation in the design of transportation systems and urban areas. Pedestrian and cycling paths should be provided as attractive and safe alternatives to cars.

Maintain and enhance the health and viability of urban public transit systems.

Integrate transport modes, whether for passengers or goods, in order to provide more efficient goods movement, and to increase the availability of lower impact transportation options such as public transit.

Protect historical sites and archaeological resources, reduce noise pollution, and consider aesthetics in the planning, design and construction of transportation systems.

Decision Making Processes

Ensure public and private sector stakeholders coordinate their transportation planning, development and delivery activities. These transportation decisions should also be integrated with environment, health, energy and urban land-use decisions.

Make transportation-related decisions in an open and inclusive process. Inform the public about transportation options and impacts, and encourage them to participate in decision making so that the needs of different communities (i.e. rural vs. urban; cyclists vs. drivers, etc.) can be understood and accounted for.

Anticipate environmental or social impacts of transportation-related decisions rather than trying to react to them after they have occurred. This will result in considerable cost savings since transportation decisions often involve costly, long-term infrastructure investments. Consider both the global and local social, economic and environmental effects of decisions.

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ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

Environmental Protection and Waste Reduction

Minimize transportation-related air emissions and discharges of contaminants to surface (fresh and salt water) and ground water.

Minimize the generation of waste through each phase of the life-cycle of transportation vehicles, vessels and infrastructure. Reduce, reuse and recycle.

Ensure that the rate of use of renewable resources does not exceed rates of regeneration, and non-renewable resource use is minimized.

Ensure emergency management systems are in place in order to respond to spills and other transportation-related accidents.

Land Use

Emphasize compact urban form in order to reduce habitat destruction and loss of agricultural and recreational lands around urban areas.

Minimize the impact on natural habitat and the wildlife and people it supports in the design, construction and operation of inter-city transportation systems and infrastructure, including, for example, highways, pipelines, and railways.Energy Use

Reduce fossil fuel consumption and emissions through efficiencies and demand management.

Promote the use of alternative and renewable energy.

ECONOMIC VIABILITY

Fuller-Cost Accounting

Identify and recognize public subsidies (hidden or otherwise) to all modes of transport and make transportation decisions accordingly.

Reflect the full social, economic and environmental costs (including long term costs) of each mode of transport or transport related practice as accurately as possible in market prices.

Ensure users pay a fuller share of all costs, while respecting equity concerns.

Research and Technological Innovation

Promote research and development of innovative alternative technologies that improve access and help protect the environment. The emphasis should be on providing a wide range of transportation options.

Job Creation

Consider the potential economic and employment benefits that could be derived from the restructuring of our transportation systems.

Over the last few years, the word ‘sustainability’ has attained a prominent place in transportation policy and planning. Sustainability can be broadly defined as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs’. In the context of transportation, sustainability would mean developing better transportation systems, options, and expectations consistent with the objective of securing future social and economic development within a sustainable environment that ensures community well-being. Sustainable transport can be achieved through measures pertaining to transportation system management, energy management, capacity management and environmental management. Sustainable transport is also important from the perspective of climate change, i.e. decreasing the carbon foot print /ecological foot print of transportation. As per some studies conducted in the U.K and the U.S., it has been found that road transport emits 22-25% of the total output of carbon dioxide. These findings thrust the need for achieving sustainability in transport not just from the mobility and safety perspective but also from the perspective of local and global environmental issues.

Are current systems and trends in Indian cities sustainable?

Are current systems and trends in Indian cities sustainable? It is important to answer this question before discussing research issues with respect to the Indian scenario. For this, it is essential to first understand the present trends in areas like urbanisation, motorisation, modal share, and their impact on mobility and safety issues.

Urbanisation

As per 2001 census, India has 393 towns with a population exceeding 0.1 million. Also, during the second half of the last century, the number of cities in India with a population of one million and above has steadily increased from 5 in 1951 to 35 in 2001, and is expected to further increase to 70 by 2025. The share of urban population to the total population is also projected to increase from 28% in 2001 to 58% by 2025.

It is clearly understood that cities are the economical contributors of the nation with 50-60% contribution to national GDP. How an Urban India can survive and thrive with the aforementioned estimated population is a challenge of paramount importance.

Motorisation

Indian cities have registered a huge growth in registered motor vehicles in the last decade. Booming economy, aspirations to own a vehicle, inadequate public transport (with respect to demand, comfort or both), government’s encouraging policies etc. are few reasons for the rapid increase in motorisation. From 1981 to 2001, population increased in six major metropolises by 1.9 times but motor vehicles increased by 7.75 times. Energy demand in the transport sector is projected to grow at 5-8% per annum. The estimates of vehicular growth are unimaginable and threatening. To illustrate with an example, cars and SUVs will increase thirteen-fold by 2035 with respect to 2005 figures, in a do-nothing scenario. Although we can see a clear increase in vehicular growth from past few years, it is only applicable for private vehicles and not the bus fleet. In fact, the size of our bus fleet has been decreasing in most urban transport undertakings except in Bangalore where the annual growth is about 10%.

Modal share

As a general trend, with the increase in the size of the city in terms of both area as well as population, the modal share of public transport has been increasing but there is no evidence either for the reduction of private motorised transport (2w+car etc) share except for the 5 million plus cities. One of the important reasons for considerable PT modal share is the presence of a substantial percentage of captive riders in most Indian cities. But, at the same time, the modal share of non-motorised transport (walk and bicycle) is also considerable. Despite this, the infrastructure and facility support is extremely poor for NMT modes in India. From a recent study by MOUD, during 1994 to 2007, the average public transport share had been reducing for the cities with above 2 million populations. From the same study, it is also highlighted that the major portion of vehicular composition during peak hour on important corridors in the city consists of cars, two-wheelers and IPT, which clearly indicates the reason for extreme congestion on Indian urban roads during peak hours.

After understanding the trends of urbanization, motorization, and modal share, it is now important to understand how they are affecting mobility and safety, which are the two main goals of transportation.

Effects on Mobility

Mobility can be assessed in terms of speed, travel times, delays etc. along important corridors in the city. According to a recent study by MOUD, the average journey speed in 2007 on important city corridors was in the range of 17-26 kmph, which is considerably low compared to design speeds for the same roads. Considering a do-nothing scenario, these speeds are expected to fall to single digits by 2031. Also, as per an interesting finding from MOUD report on calculating congestion index of 30 cities in India, it is concluded that 0.25 is the average congestion index on a scale 0-0.6 where ‘0’ indicates good and ‘0.6’ indicates poor index value, and most of the major metro cities fair very badly on the congestion index with its value much higher than the average. As per the same report by MOUD, the average volume to capacity (V/C) ratio on major corridors within cities (in 2007) has already reached values closer to or exceeding 1, indicating extreme congestion conditions during peak hour. This V/C ratio is expected to reach a value of up to 2 by 2031, under a do-nothing scenario. Also, as per recent data on fuel consumption and emissions per day, the major portion is shared by cars and two wheelers, which highlights the

need to promote PT and NMT modes to bring these levels of fuel consumption and emission down.

Effects on Safety

Safety is another important goal of transportation, and is a major issue of worry in India. Recently, WHO revealed in its global status report on road safety that India topped in road accident fatalities over every other country in the world including the most populous China. In India, the number of road deaths is increasing every year whereas in other European countries like Germany, Sweden, England and Denmark, the numbers are either stagnant or reducing and thus indicating their higher sustainability levels. In Sweden the government is now aiming for zero fatalities in road accidents and is advocating policies accordingly.

To summarize, most Indian cities today are typically characterized by high-density urban areas, absence of proper control on land use, lack of proper roads and parking facilities, poor public transport, lack of road user discipline etc. This level and type of urbanization in India has caused many problems, especially with regard to its impact on the demand for infrastructure facilities. Urban transport systems have come under heavy strain and this has adversely affected the quality of life of urban dwellers. Mass transport facilities in the cities are grossly inadequate for providing fast, comfortable, and convenient travel. This has resulted in heavy shift of commuter patronage from mass transportation to private and intermediate transport and consequently, a huge increase in no. of intermediate and private vehicle ownership. The introduction of small cars, like Tata Nano (people’s car), in the Indian market will further add to the complexity of the transportation situation in the Indian cities. The resultant effects are increased traffic congestion and transport-borne pollution, heavy fuel consumption, poor level of service to the commuter etc.

So, addressing the question, ‘Are current systems and trends in Indian cities sustainable?’ the answer is a clear ‘No’.

Efforts Made by Governments so far

Realizing the magnitude of the problem, the Indian central and state governments have taken some major initiatives in the recent past to achieve sustainability in transport, as explained in subsequent sections.

National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) 2006

In 2006, Ministry of Urban Development, Govt. of India issued the National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) document, which gave thrust on moving people rather than vehicles. The following are the objectives of the policy:-

Incorporating urban transport as an important parameter at the planning stage rather than being a consequential requirement

Reduced travel demand- better integration of land use & transport planning.

Equitable allocation of road space

Improved public transport

Introducing ITS

Facilities for use of non motorized vehicles

Capacity building- individual & institutional

Use of cleaner technology

Innovative financing mechanism

Greater involvement of private sector

Better awareness

The NUTP has now become the guiding document for all transport improvements in Indian cities.

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission ( JnNURM)

JnNURM was launched by the Central government to provide financial assistance to 63 mission cities for various urban development projects including urban transport. It is a reform based mission. The statement of vision is, “Reform driven fast track planned development of identified cities with focus on efficiency in urban infrastructure/services delivery mechanism, community participation and accountability of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) towards citizens”. The central

government made it mandatory for all transport related proposals to be in consonance with NUTP, for them to be eligible for funding under JnNURM.

Overview of JnNURM

Selection of Cities: The selection of cities is primarily based on the population of the cities and the other state capitals and other cities with religious or historic importance. A total of 63 cities were selected based on the above criteria and their classification is as follows. The numbers in the brackets indicates, the number of cities falling under that category.

1. Cities/ UAs with 4 m+ population as per 2001 census (07),

2. Cities/ UAs with 1 m+ but less than 4 m population as per 2001 census (28),

3. Selected Cities/ UAs (State Capitals and other cities/ UA of religious/ historic and tourist importance) (28)

Coverage: This scheme covers 63 Cities/Urban Areas with a population more than 150 million to be benefited

Expected order of investment – Rs.1000 billion in seven years

Thrust Areas

Water Supply

Sewerage

Solid Waste Management

Drainage including preservation of water bodies

Urban Transport

Inner City Renewal

Development of Heritage Area

Provision of basic services to the urban poor

Gaps Identified in JnNURM - Several gaps were identified including: proposals not being part of an overall vision for the city; the projects do not integrate land use & transportation, pedestrian facilities, NMV facilities, parking facilities; Alternatives analysis not done sincerely in most cases; lack of inter modal integration etc.

Research Issues

In spite of these and many more such initiatives by the central and state governments, the improvements are still not encouraging. There are many research issues that need to be addressed in order to make these efforts successful in achieving sustainability in transportation for India cities. The following sections present some of those research issues.

Approach for developing urban transport strategy

We need to clearly understand the approach for making urban transport strategies. So far a bottom-up approach is adopted in all transportation studies and strategies and a top-down approach is never adopted or even considered. Actually, the bottom-up approach is useful for existing policies where minor changes are required but not for a fundamental review of the policy. The following points emphasise the difference in the two approaches.

Bottom-up approach

In this approach, identification and analysis of a comprehensive set of transport problems are made.

Potential solutions to the problems are assessed in isolation as well as in combination using a detailed transport model

Combination which best solves the problems is taken as preferred strategy

Top-down approach

The starting point is set of goals and objectives

The formed goals and objectives represent a broader view of perceived problems

The measures are developed to fulfill the objectives and further the goals

Planning and Modeling issues

The following modeling/planning issues have to be seriously addressed through research:

Developing the models that reflect the impact of changing land use and /or control policies, slum development etc. on transportation and vice versa.

In cases where infrastructure expansion is not possible, assessing the required land-use control considering the holding capacity of transport infrastructure.

More realistic modeling of mode split, including walk, public transport modes (auto-rickshaws, taxi, bus and rail), and private transport (motorcycle and car);

Stated response surveys – how to facilitate use of complex choice scenarios for more reliable behavioral models and more accurate response forecasting.

Exploring possibilities of considering environmental and social cost as part of the planning process rather than during post-planning impact assessment.

Activity based modeling – still to be developed and attempted in India?

Better data collection techniques involving technology – for credible and accurate travel and household data (position, route, distance/time)

More realistic assignment of trips to rail and bus networks taking into account the condition in trains, variations in bus speeds and frequency due to changes in overall traffic volume and fares;

Orienting transport planning to address the climate change issues. May be introducing carbon footprint or ecological footprint as a planning parameter.

Public Transport Issues

Need for Systems approach in public transportation planning (address O-D travel time effectively, include all modes)

Inter-modal integration – operational, physical, institutional, still to be effectively achieved..

Need to develop integrated approach for corridor identification (for Metro, BRTS etc.) in metropolitan cities.

Better Transit ridership estimates – to enhance our understanding of existing and potential transit users, their behavior, attitudes, and opinions.

To evolve Passenger Information System (PIS) design (especially for pre-trip planning) that is suitable for Indian cities. (weak inter-modal integration, differential importance assigned by user to different legs of the trip)

Route and schedule rationalization. Practically no use of optimization (awareness, better understanding of parameters). Which optimization tool is effective and credible to use?

Better understanding of requirements from optimality in routing and scheduling (What is required - global optimum, local optimum, or set of pareto optimal solutions?).

Non-motorized Transport (NMT) Issues

Need to research and define the role of NMT (access only or main mode) in overall mobility of the city (for larger, medium, and smaller cities).

Need for change in planning and policy guidelines, to provide seamless travel using NMT.

More credible ways to assess the impact of pedestrianization, pedestrian zones etc.

Ways to integrate hawkers and vendors as part of the pedestrian policy and facility design guidelines.

Effective geometric design for NMT to provide seamlessly connected and safe travel across the city.

Identification of factors that may encourage the use of NM modes

Understanding the effect of urban density, mixed land-uses, neighborhood features etc. on NMT use.

Understanding the potential of traffic calming in pedestrian safety

Driver Behaviour and Road Safety Issues

Ways to quantify the impacts of driver attributes, education, and behavior on road safety and mobility. Suggest improvements.

Assessing Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) and effective traffic law enforcement as a measure for improving road safety

Traffic management Issues

Need to develop effective micro-simulation tools for modeling heterogeneous and non-lane based traffic.

What is good for Indian traffic? Non-lane based or lane based traffic.

Understanding the impact of traffic demand management measures such as parking fees, road user charges and congestion pricing, as well as the staggering of working hours, flexible working hours and multiple shift work.

Right ITS measures and tools for Indian cities

Traffic management strategies during post-disaster scenario

The goal of the Sustainable Transportation Systems Program (STSP) is to develop knowledge about the energy and environmental aspects of moving people and goods.

Program objectives include the following:Improve transportation energy efficiency and reduce emissions through roadway design, traffic operations, and community design and planningAdvance the use of sustainable fuels, technologies, and energy efficient transportation modes Increase understanding of the economic and environmental impacts of renewable fuels and encourage use of sustainable transportation energy sourcesInvestigate economic models that encourage more efficient passenger and freight movement