Appendices.doc

INVESTMENT IN AGRICULTURAL WATER MANAGEMENT IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA: DIAGNOSIS OF TRENDS AND

OPPORTUNITIES

A Collaborative Program

between

The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), The African Development Bank (ADB),

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO),

The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), The International Water Management Institute (IWMI),

and The World Bank (WB)

INCEPTION REPORTVolume 2 - Appendices

Submitted to The African Development Bank

January 2004

INTERNATIONAL WATER MANAGEMENT NSTITUTE

Table of Contents

Table of Contents...................................................................................................................................................................1List of Acronyms....................................................................................................................................................................2

APPENDIX 1. DETAILED METHODOLOGIES AND WORKPLANS FOR THE BANK SUPPORTED COMPONENTS............................................................................................................................5

1. Review of Irrigation Project Planning and Implementation Process..................................................................................72. Opportunities for Private Sector Participation in Agricultural Water Development and Management............................193. Health and Environmental Aspects.................................................................................................................................294. Agricultural Water and Livestock Production...................................................................................................................395. Study on Agricultural Water Development for Poverty Reduction in sub-Saharan Africa..............................................47

APPENDIX 2. OTHER COMPONENTS OF THE COLLABORATIVE PROGRAM........................................55

6. Regional Demand for Products of Irrigated Agriculture (FAO)........................................................................................577. Assessment of Potential for Improving Agricultural Water Management in sub-Saharan Africa (IWMI)........................678. Irrigation Cost Study in sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank and IWMI).............................................................................739. Study on Agricultural Water Development and Poverty Reduction in Eastern and Southern Africa (IFAD and IWMI)..8910. Agricultural Water Use from a River Basin Perspective in sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank).....................................99

APPENDIX 3: CONSOLIDATED REFERENCES...............................................................................103

CONSOLIDATED REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................105

APPENDIX 4. THE COLLOBORATIVE PROGRAM...........................................................................109Investment in Agricultural Water Management in sub-Saharan Africa: Diagnosis os Trends and Opportunities.............111Membership of the Steering Committee and Working Group, and....................................................................................117Program Coordinator..........................................................................................................................................................117

APPENDIX 5. CVS OF KEY IWMI STAFF MEMBERS.......................................................................119

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List of Acronyms

ADB-PEO - Asian Development Bank - Post Evaluation OfficeADB - African Development BankAPPROTEC - Appropriate Technologies for Enterprise CreationAQUASTAT - FAO’s Information System on Water and AgricultureAT2030 - FAO Agricultural Trends up to 2030AU - African UnionCAADP - NEPAD Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development ProgramCCG - Collaborative Program Core Consultative GroupCGIAR - Consultative Group for International Agricultural ResearchCOMESA - Common Market for Eastern and Southern AfricaCTA - Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural CooperationEAP - East Asian and the Pacific countriesE&CA - European and Central Asian countriesECA - United Nations Economic Commission for AfricaECOWAS - The Economic Community of West African StatesEW - Enterprise WorksFAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsFAO-AGLW - Water Resources, Development and Management Service of FAOFARA - Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa FMIS - Farmer-Managed Irrigation SystemGART - Golden Valley Agricultural Research TrustGDP - Gross Domestic ProductGIEWS - Global Information and Early Warning System on Food and AgricultureGIS - Geographic Information SystemHIV/AIDS - Human Immunodeficiency Virus / Acquired Immunodeficiency SyndromeH & E - Health and Environment component of the Collaborative ProgramICRISAT - International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid TropicsIDE - International Development EnterprisesIFAD - International Fund for Agricultural DevelopmentIFPRI - International Food Policy Research InstituteILRI - International Livestock Research InstituteIMT - Irrigation Management TransferINRM - Integrated Natural Resource ManagementInWEnt - Capacity Building International, GermanyIPTRID - International Program for Technology & Research in Irrigation and DrainageIRR - Internal Rate of ReturnIUCN - World Conservation UnionIWMI - International Water Management InstituteIWRM - Integrated Water Resource ManagementLAC - Latin American and Caribbean countriesMENA - Middle East and North African countriesMRFIP - Mara Region Farmers’ Initiative Project of TanzaniaMUWSS - Multiple Use Water Supply SystemsNEPAD - New Partnership for Africa’s DevelopmentNGO - Non-Government OrganizationPANAF - Pan AfricaPIDP - Participatory Irrigation Development Program of TanzaniaPHBM - Upper Mandrare Basin Development Project of Madagascar

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P & I - Planning and Implementation Process component of Collaborative ProgramPMU - Project Management UnitPODIUM - Policy Dialogue ModelPPP - Public-Private PartnershipPSI - Collaborative Program Private Sector componentREAP - Rural Enterprise Agri-Business Promotion Project of KenyaRWH - Rainwater HarvestingSA - South Asian countriesSADC - Southern African Development CommunitySC - Collaborative Program Steering CommitteeSDARMP - Smallholder Dry Areas Resource Management Project of ZimbabweSEDAP - South Eastern Dry Areas Project of ZimbabweSIMA - System-wide Initiative on Malaria and AgricultureSMEs - Small and Medium EnterprisesSPSS - Statistical Package for the Social Sciences SSA - sub-Saharan AfricaSSI - Smallholder Systems InnovationsTCP - FAO’s Technical Cooperation ProgramTOR - Terms of ReferenceTPs - Treadle PumpsUN - United NationsUNCED - United Nations Conference on Environment and DevelopmentUNESCAP - United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the PacificUSAID-IEHA - United States Agency for International Development – Initiative to End

Hunger in AfricaWATERSIM - Water, Agriculture, Technology, Environment and Resources Simulation

ModelWB - World BankWB-OED - World Bank Operation Evaluation DepartmentWG - Collaborative Program Working GroupWWF - World Water ForumWWV - World Water Vision

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APPENDIX 1. DETAILED METHODOLOGIES AND WORKPLANS FOR THE BANK SUPPORTED COMPONENTS

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1. Review of Irrigation Project Planning and Implementation Process

BACKGROUND AND JUSTIFICATION

Disappointing results of irrigation development efforts in the past have often been associated with poor planning, appraisal and implementation of investment opportunities in Asia as well as Africa (Nijman 1991; 1992). Inadequate identification of suitable areas, failure to incorporate environmental, social and institutional issues, poor implementation, and absence of or weak data collection and monitoring have often caused low or even negative returns on investment, emergence of environmental and health problems, lack of sustainability, subsequent collapse of infrastructure, and emergence of a rehabilitation-lack of maintenance-rehabilitation cycle. Even where project design has been satisfactory, weak implementation capacity has often led to unsatisfactory results.

Many projects in the past (not only agricultural projects) were designed and implemented in a top-down fashion, with little or no real participation of the supposed ‘beneficiaries’ in designing and implementing projects. Even where an element of ‘participation’ is built into projects, it is all too often largely in terms of inducing local investment of labor and not in real decision-making. Investments have often been driven by donors and governments, and not by the demands and wishes of potential beneficiaries. Even projects specifically intended to enhance farmers’ capacity for scheme management have often not succeeded, in part because of serious project design and implementation weaknesses (Shah et al. 2002).

The main challenge in the sector is to create the environment for increased and sustainable agricultural production through efficient management of the existing irrigated lands and expansion into new areas to meet the food security targets and improve livelihood. This would imply development planning and mobilization of investment resources for implementation and operation of many projects over the coming decades. Weaknesses in the planning and implementation process have been identified at the Harare workshop and in other forums as one of the key issues that should be addressed to facilitate increased development in the sector. This is the justification for this component study.

OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE

The specific objective of the Planning and Implementation component is to identify ways to increase the performance and sustainability of investments in agricultural water, by identifying practical measures to improve project preparation and implementation. This includes planning, appraisal, implementation arrangements, supervision (or ‘implementation support’) and systems for monitoring and evaluation. Special attention will be paid to the institutional framework for project planning, appraisal and implementation, in terms of the incentives the different parties may have with respect to achieving the project goals. Ways to make projects more demand-driven, such that the water users are motivated and enabled to use the infrastructure productively and sustainably will be emphasized. This component will focus on agricultural water use projects funded by multilateral donors (World Bank, African Development Bank, IFAD) as well as 2 to 3 selected bilateral agencies.

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METHODOLOGY

Conceptual FrameworkPlanning and implementation problems are often cited to explain the differences between objectives and achievements in past agricultural water use projects in Sub Saharan Africa. Moreover it is assumed that most of the technical failures have an institutional origin. Criteria used to judge these projects refer to their relevance and their efficacy. The efficacy of projects relates to how the results compare to the objectives, i.e., were the things done in the right way. The relevance of projects refers to how a set of objectives is defined, i.e., were the right things done1. These objectives are then compared to the national development plans and strategies. The idea is therefore to explain how planning and implementation processes may have an impact on the relevance and efficacy of the projects.

The planning and implementation problems have already been well documented in many studies, with several contributions dating from the early 1990s (see for example Diemer and Vincent, 1992). Nevertheless, first the ranking of importance between these problems varies from one expert to another. Second, it is currently difficult to assess to what extent the problems diagnosed in the early 1990s still apply today.

In a broad way, many of the problematic issues exposed in the early 1990s have been integrated in new policy frameworks: participation of beneficiaries in the design, attention to gender and the poorer components of the population, design of user associations to take over the operation and maintenance after project completion, relationships between the project management unit (PMU) and the governmental agencies, etc. While these elements are now part of the official discourse and thus more or less compulsorily present in project appraisal documents, more recent projects still show disappointing results vis-à-vis these issues.

Therefore, it may be useful to assess to what extent the planning and implementation processes have really evolved by comparing projects implemented at different periods within the last twenty years. An assessment of some on-going projects may be considered.

The various failures reported in the literature may occur at different stages of the planning and implementation process. Therefore, the proposed conceptual framework will be based on a description of the project life cycle, and on the identification of the different types of failure associated with each stage. Table 1.1 proposes a simplified description of a project cycle.

The effectiveness of each stage is closely linked to the stakeholders involved in implementation and to the way the responsibilities are shared between them. Therefore it is important to clearly identify for each stage its requirements, the institution in charge, the expected outputs and the potential means of monitoring its execution.

The institutional failures can be divided into three types: a lack of capacity of one of the actors regarding one or more of the actions

(planning, supervision, implementation, etc); a lack of incentive to complete successfully the expected actions; and a problem within the project lifecycle.

1 For a precise definition of the terms “relevance”, “efficacy”, “efficiency”, see for instance World Bank, 1996.

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There are also often trade-off between the benefits of an improvement of the institutional process and the costs it incurs.

For a specific project, the failures or successes at each stage of the project life cycle can be identified by answering the following questions:

Table 1.1. Stages of a Project Cycle

Stages of Project Cycle Relevant Project Documents/Reports Identification Country/Sector Reviews/Assessments from

Identification Missions and country strategic plans and Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers

Preparation Environmental Assessment Report, Pre-feasibility/Feasibility Studies

Appraisal Project Appraisal ReportsNegotiation Proof of Satisfaction of Donor

ConditionalitiesApproval Detailed Project Appraisal Effectiveness Loan or Credit AgreementsImplementation and Supervision

Project Completion Reports

Ex post Evaluation Project Evaluation/Performance Audit Reports

Source: Project Cycles adapted from the World Bank, 2002.

What are the incentives of the various actors involved in the project (e.g., the investor, government officials, politicians, contractors, the presumed ‘beneficiaries’)? Are project objectives and the incentive structures aligned and consistent? Who are the losers and who are the gainers? How do these affect the project outcomes?

What is the quality of data used in planning, implementation, and monitoring? How effectively are these data used? Do all parties to the project have access to the data they need? How do these issues affect project outcomes?

How effective are the mechanisms for project management? Do all the key actors have a voice? Is there an effective transparent planning and monitoring process? Does the project have the support from the government, investors, and beneficiaries it requires for effective implementation? Are the decision-making, tendering, financial disbursement, etc. mechanisms effective, transparent, and consistent with best practice? How do these factors affect project outcomes?

How is the project design and implementation affected by government policies and capacities? Is the project consistent with government policies? Is the capacity of the implementing agency adequate for project implementation as agreed? If not, what is being done to ensure capacity is built? Is the project designed in a way to capture lessons that may be relevant for improving government policies? How do these factors affect project outcomes?

Other issues to be at least partially addressed include the following: Application of IWRM principles and treatment of agricultural water within the framework

of holistic, integrated river basin management and integrated rural development approach or lack of it;

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Suitability of physical design and choice of technology to the local situation; suitability of scale of project to local capacities and conditions; and

Strategy for capacity building, awareness and widening the knowledge base including public education; professional services and construction; research and technology adaptation.

This component will compile experiences of countries and the collaborating partners from past and recent project preparation and implementation, and analyze lessons learned to identify key constraints and innovative approaches to enable increased investment in the sector. The methodology will be, broadly, an “institutional analysis” drawing from sociology and institutional economics but focusing on identifying practical implementable suggestions for improvement without indulging in a broad theoretical critique of project design.

The study will analyze the institutional and technical settings wherein projects are conceptualized, developed and implemented and eventually operated. The idea is to understand how these setting have contributed to a project’s success or failure. It will be conducted in three stages involving a) desk review, b) fieldwork and analysis and c) consolidation that will result in the final output.

Desk ReviewThe desk review work will focus on the analysis of past experiences and approaches of financing institutions, donors and countries to identify possible reasons for successes or failures and will take stock of the quality at entry, monitoring and implementation process to ensure project sustainability. The review will include selected projects funded by multilateral agencies such as World Bank, IFAD, and ADB as well as two to three selected bilateral agencies through visits to the offices of these institutions and use of their databases. We will also interview selected project managers to get their views and suggestions.

A quite large and comprehensive sample of projects (20-30) will be selected for the desk review on the basis of an analysis of the data provided by the different agencies. The following selection criteria can be proposed: type of donors (multilateral, bilateral), English / French speaking countries, scheme size in terms of area, diverted water volume, or total cost of the project, date of implementation (to track changes in the planning processes), purpose of the project (large scale irrigation, small scale irrigation, rain fed agriculture, multipurpose use including irrigation).

The review of selected projects will be conducted in the following manner:

(1) Definition of a project lifecycle: First, a general outline of the overall process of planning and implementation will be described. The lifecycle of the project will be detailed using a Quality Management Approach: each step will be defined with its requirements, the institution in charge, the expected outputs and the potential means of monitoring the project. The review will be done for the whole cycle, i.e., both the design of objectives as well as the implementation. The differences among the donors’ systems and processes in conceptualizing/developing up to implementing of projects will be documented.

(2) Qualitative analysis of the different causes of both success and failure for the whole lifecycle: Using the project lifecycle, the analysis will lead to a comprehensive list of causes for both success and failure at the different stages of a project. This qualitative analysis will assess the documented problems both for the relevance and efficacy of a project. Regarding the relevance of the project, the study will use existing assessments: evaluations reports as

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well as research reports. The efficacy of projects will be assessed in the short term by the donors’ evaluation documents (project completion reports). The long term functioning of the project will be assessed with the donors’ documents (e.g., project audit reports), but since they are rare, the bulk of information will come from existing research documents.

(3) The identified solutions and the successful projects: Causes for failure have been already analyzed and, for many of them, a partial or complete solution was proposed. The study will review the different investigations made, the solutions proposed and some potential case studies where the proposed remedies have been applied.

(4) Analysis of the internal quality control set up by the donors and implementing agencies: This previous analysis will partially enable to assess the current quality control mechanisms within the project lifecycle. For instance, it will assess to what extent the Quality at Entry methodology succeeds in assessing the potential risks for failure.

To achieve this analysis, all the available Project Completion Reports, Project Audit Reports, country assessments and other analyses made by the Statistics or Evaluation Department must be made available by selected donors (World Bank, IFAD, ADB, and two to three bilateral donors). The information will be gathered from these studies, from available research done and from direct interviews with evaluators, contractors and Development Agencies representatives. Being a desk analysis, this research will not be able to fully assess potential mistakes or bias in the different project documents. The fieldwork organized for the second component will enable to analyze this issue on a limited amount of case studies. This stage will be completed four months after commencement.

Case studiesThe second stage consists of in-depth analysis of selected in-country case studies. Much of this work will be carried out with help from national consultants, who will be provided with questionnaires, guidelines and criteria for making assessments and judgments. Selected projects will be analyzed to evaluate the key aspects of failures and successes and to draw lessons. It is expected that 3-4 cases will be selected for the fieldwork taking into consideration regional balance and relevance. A period of six months may be required to complete the fieldwork. The analysis will cover the full project cycle activities with emphasis on institutional and technical aspects.

This stage has two objectives. First, an evaluation of the relevance of the project will be completed. Second, the analysis will focus on the supervision of the project by the donor and implementation by the national governments or designated (national) agencies.

The evaluation of the relevance will look at how the objectives were chosen and will include looking at relationships between stakeholders, the extent and quality of stakeholder participation in the different aspects of project planning and implementation and even in choosing from various technical options if several options were indeed considered. We hypothesize the extent and quality of stakeholder participation is a key determinant of success. This will enable assessment of the extent to which criteria other than the IRR (e.g., equity, environmental impact) are taken into account and the corresponding consequences. The study will detail the shortcomings of the current criteria (for instance, the fact that the IRR may not take into account heterogeneity among the beneficiaries, externalities and spill over effects such as secondary benefits) but it will not propose a full new set of criteria (a

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whole literature exists already on this issue). The World Bank Operation Evaluation Department (WB-OED) for instance can assist in providing the framework and tool for doing an impact evaluation that compares ex post the benefits of the project with and without the project (WB-OED, 2002).

The analysis of supervision will look at the possible discrepancies between the projects’ successes and failures and the accounts given in the supervision and evaluation documents issued by the donor (see Clements, 1999, for an example of such analysis).

The case studies will be chosen using three criteria: (1) use of evaluation reports and expert knowledge to choose recent completed projects; (2) assessment of different technologies (large-scale and small-scale schemes, treadle pumps for instance); and (3) cooperation with the other component studies to improve the synergies. Some fieldwork will be done, especially to understand ex post how the project was designed step by step. The government agency as well as the beneficiaries will be interviewed to get their point of view on the way the project was designed.

SynthesisThe third stage of the study will be an analysis and evaluation of the consolidated results from both the desk review and field work, and comparison of these to results from related studies in Africa and other regions. A draft report on the major lessons learned and providing key recommendations to investors and countries to make project planning and implementation more effective and innovative will be prepared. This will be presented to the general stakeholder workshop together with the results of other components to obtain further ideas for improvement before the report is finalized. The results of the workshop will be incorporated into the main report of the overall study. This stage is expected to be completed about two months after completion of the field studies.

ACTIVITIES

The different activities following submission of this Inception Report include: (1) elaboration and refinement of the approach and conceptual framework; (2) carrying out of a desk review which will include library search within and outside IWMI, literature compilation, contacting of donors and other relevant organizations and searching for databases and required documents, and setting the criteria for choosing case studies; (3) selection of case studies and implementation which will include preparation of terms of reference and identification of regional consultants; (4) writing of component report which will synthesize findings from desk review and field study; and (5) contributing to overall investment study synthesis.

The study will be implemented by IWMI and ADB using in-house capacity and through the engagement of consultants and technical assistance staff. The ADB will finance the major cost of the study through IWMI who will be responsible for executing the study and hence will provide the major inputs required. IWMI will use its own staff and as necessary engage its own experts, using regional and national consultants and other technical and logistical support as necessary. Annex 1.2 provides details on tasks and planned staffing while Annex 1.3 provides details on timing and milestones.

SYNERGIES

Findings of the planning and implementation study will serve as inputs to the other components of the Collaborative Program just as P&I will benefit from their findings. The

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qualitative analysis of the P&I will clearly complement the quantitative analysis to be undertaken under the cost study. Specifically, this component will examine how the nature of organizations involved into these processes and their inter-relationships can impact on the costs of a project (for example the procedure for choosing project consultants and contractors, and the capacities of the national irrigation agencies among others). Similarly, the effects of public participation on the costs will be assessed jointly by the both components.

As much as possible, the projects analyzed for the desk review and the case studies will be selected according the same criteria and from the same database as the cost study.

The P&I study will examine how the health and environmental impacts of agricultural water use investments are taken in consideration in the planning and implementation processes, and how the institutional features of agricultural water investments may have positive or negative impacts on human health and the environment

The involvement in the P&I process of different types of decision makers, including farmers themselves, small and medium enterprises, and other private entities, will be assessed. Those decision makers will be interviewed during the field work. This will clearly be relevant to the private sector component.

Using the conceptual framework elaborated under the poverty component, the P&I study will look at how the issue of poverty reduction is addressed in planning and implementation phases. This component will assess to what extent the benefits of the agricultural water investments according to categories of beneficiaries (particularly the poorest and the women) are measured and factored into decision-making. Where available data and information will allow, the project planning and implementation process among NGOs involved in the development of small-scale irrigation technologies, such as Enterprise Works (EW) or Approtec, will be compared with the P&I processes of multilateral donors and national governments.

Finally, this component will assess to what extent the stakeholders’ role and their negotiating power can explain the way markets and market opportunities are considered in project planning. For example, were the local agricultural processing and marketing companies involved in the planning process? At which stage of the project are the marketing aspects taken up? On what basis were the hypotheses about demand for agricultural products formulated? These questions will link the P&I to the regional demand for irrigated agricultural products component.

OUTPUTSThis analysis will enable identification of hypotheses concerning the most important reasons for both success and failure due to planning and implementation (P&I) if any; the differences between the donors’ P&I processes and any steps that donors have put into effect to address past weaknesses in P&I. More important, it will identify specific practical recommendations to improve planning and implementation of future projects.

The main outputs of the desk review will be: 1) a compilation of data on completed projects, identification of specific issues and hypotheses regarding P&I factors affecting project successes and failures; and 2) a detailed work plan for the field work stage. This work plan will include proposed questionnaires or survey instruments, and criteria to be used in making assessment of such issues as the quality of data used in planning, effectiveness of

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management mechanisms, and incentives of the various actors involved in project design and implementation. A report providing the results of the desk study and proposed work plan for the second stage will be submitted for review and comments by the Working Group.

The main outputs from the case studies will be a better understanding of the way agricultural water use projects are planned and implemented at country level and insights into key reasons for project failures and successes as related to project planning and implementation. In addition, the cases will present the point of view of the stakeholders (government, beneficiaries, consultant, and contractors) on issues and concerns within a project’s lifecycle. A report describing the cases studied and findings will be submitted at the end of the fieldwork to the Working Group.

To summarize, this component will produce the following outputs: Draft and final report on the findings of the desk studies and literature review; Draft and final report on the findings of the in-country field studies (as well as reports on

each case); and Draft and final report on the overall findings and recommendations.

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ANNEX 1.1 LogframeIntervention Logic Objectively Verifiable Indicators Means of Verification AssumptionsOverall ObjectiveTo catalyze increased investment in agricultural water use for poverty alleviation in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Increased levels of investment in agricultural water use in SSA.

Annual reports by donors and governments.

Investors willing to invest in good projects. Water use for agriculture investments will give good returns. Cost-effective opportunities do exist.

Immediate ObjectiveTo improve the planning, design and implementation of agricultural water use projects in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Set of clear recommendations on ways to improve planning, design and implementation of projects.

Final Report. Governments and donors willing to implement improvements.

PurposeTo answer the following questions in the context of SSA:

Studies and sub-studies completed. Periodic progress reports and Final Report

Questions posed are relevant and answerable.

What is the institutional framework of the project lifecycle? What are the institutional reasons for failure of the past agricultural water use projects in SSA? How these reasons evolved in the past years? What is their relative importance? What are the opportunities for improvement?

Project selection, design and implementation can be improved.Access to Donors’ information regarding the planning and implementation of past agricultural water use projects

How the objectives of the project were chosen? What are the perceptions of stakeholders regarding the current project lifecycle? To what extent the supervision and evaluation documents issued by the Donors give an accurate description of the project?

What are the new methodologies regarding planning and implementation currently tested by the Donors? What are the opportunities and the risks?

Outputs Studies and sub-studies completed. Periodic progress reports and Final Research Report

Analysis of project management cycle and general analysis of the reasons for failure of past agricultural water use projects in SSA

Data available for the analysis

In-depth analysis of some completed projects Data available for the analysisConcrete recommendations on specific ways to Governments will be responsive to

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Intervention Logic Objectively Verifiable Indicators Means of Verification Assumptionsimprove planning and implementation of agricultural water use projects

recommendations made and strategies proposed.

Recommendations for any necessary follow-up research.

Funds will subsequently be available

Activities1. Literature search and review Bibliography and citations Periodic reports and Final

Study ReportAdequate relevant material available.

2. Case studies and analysis Contribution made/relevance to overall study

Final Study Report Representative cases available. In-country commitment and cooperation.

3. Preparation of recommendations and strategy formulation

Implementable strategic guidelines Final Study Report Commitment to strategic thrusts

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ANNEX 1.2 Task and Staff Time Allocation1

Tasks Sub tasks IWMI staff and time (days) Consultant and cost (1000 $)

Output

Desk review SM 10JS 44HS 6DM 1

Desk review report

Case studies Preparation SM 5JS 10

TORs for consultants

In countries field work JS 20 27 Case studies individual reportsAnalysis of case studies and write report

SM 10JS 10HS 6DM 1

Field study report

P&I synthesis report SM 10JS 10HS 3DM 2

P&I synthesis report

Overall project synthesis report Contribution to draft report SM 3JS 2HS 3DM 1

Draft overall report

Stakeholder workshop SM 2JS 2HS 2DM 2

Workshop report

Contribution to final report SM 2JS 2HS 2DM 4

Final overall report

Total SM 42JS 100HS 22DM 11

SM - Dr. Sylvie Morardet, PretoriaJS - Mr. Jetrick Seshoka, PretoriaHS - Dr. Hilmy Sally, PretoriaDM - Dr. Douglas Merrey, Pretoria

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ANNEX 1.3 Gantt Chart

Project Name Agricultural water Investments Study: P & I componentProject code 34P20SA AFB14 Dec-03 Jan-04 Feb-04 Mar-04 Apr-04 May-04 Jun-04 Jul-04 Aug-04 Sep-04 Oct-04 Nov-04 Dec-04Task Description Key person 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

1 Inception report SM/DM1.1 Design approach NF/SM1.2 Develop conceptual framework NF/SM

milestone Inception report 31/01/041.3 Review and feedback by ADB and WG ADB and partners

2 Desk review SM/JS2.1 Initiate IWMI library search SM/JS2.2 Compile existing literature JS2.3 Contact donors and other organizations SM/HS/DM2.4 Search through donors’ databases JS2.5 Select the projects for desk review SM/HS/DM2.6 Complete project fact sheet SM/JS2.7 Analyze data SM/JS

2.8Set up detailed work plan for field study andcriteria for choosing case studies SM/JS/HS/DM

2.9 Write desk review report SM/HS/DMmilestone Desk review report 30/04/04

2.1 Review and feedback by ADB and WG ADB and partners3 Case studies SM/JS/consultants

3.1 Select cases studies SM/HS/DM3.2 Prepare TORs for consultants SM/JS/HS/DM3.3 Identify consultants and contract with them SM/HS/DM3.4 Adapt TORs with consultants SM/JS3.5 Complete case studies JS/consultants3.6 Write case studies individual reports JS/consultants3.7 Process and analyze data SM/JS3.8 Write Case Studies - report SM/JS/HS/DM

milestone Case studies report 31/08/043.9 Review and feedback by ADB and WG ADB and partners

4 P&I component synthesis SM/JS/HS/DM4.1 Pooled data analysis SM/JS/HS/DM4.2 Write P&I component draft report SM/JS/HS/DM

milestone P&I Component draft report 31/09/044.3 Review and feedback by ADB and WG ADB and partners4.4 Write P&I component final report

milestone P&I Component final report 31/10/045 Overal project synthesis

5.1 Contribute to draft synthesis reportmilestone Draft synthesis report 30/11/04

5.2 Workshop with key stakeholders and WG5.3 Contribute to final synthesis report

milestone Final synthesis report

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2. Opportunities for Private Sector Participation in Agricultural Water Development and Management


The volume of public investments in agriculture has been decreasing in many African countries. But the volume of investments by the private sector is probably increasing, and there is scope for a significant further rise if the conditions are right and facilitation is provided.

Our definition of “private sector” includes farmers and micro small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in agriculture: i.e., in crop production, livestock production, fisheries, in marketing these products, post harvest and food processing, and in supply chains for goods uses in the agricultural production process. More specifically, the ‘private sector’ comprises:

Farmers in rainfed and in irrigated agriculture using their own financial resources, with or without external support;

Irrigation technology manufacturers, dealers, distributors, and retailers; Irrigation development consulting firms, contracting firms; Non-governmental organizations, parastatals and private sector entities promoting

irrigated agriculture in various ways; Emerging/spontaneous market linkage initiatives: e.g., provision of support services,

peri-urban agriculture, out-grower schemes, contract farming; Private entities that manage irrigation schemes -- irrigation management transfer

(IMT) is one such example where individual farmers (or more usually, groups of farmers) take over responsibility for operation and maintenance and management of existing government-built irrigation schemes; private investments and participation in the creation of new agricultural water development facilities and the expansion/upgrading of existing schemes; and

In general, those providing input and output marketing services.

It is often not recognized that many poor smallholder farmers do have access to funds and are willing to invest in their agricultural enterprises if conditions are promising. Facilitation of this process requires changes in the direction of efforts by public sector actors and donors, and financially only moderate investments.

Another aspect of the primary production process often ignored is that rainfed agriculture (i.e., crop production with little or no supplement of water) accounts for 60% of Africa’s food production and 80% of its employment. But rainfed agriculture generally produces much below its potential, among others because water supply is too irregular. However, with moderate investments in small scale water technologies (i.e., investments in equipment, training, and empowerment together), both stability and productivity of smallholder farming can rise so that commercial production becomes viable. Recent estimates by FAO indicate that 75% of the agricultural growth required in SSA by 2030 will have to come from intensification (in the form of yield increases and higher cropping intensities), with the remaining 25% coming from arable land expansion. As a prerequisite for intensification, agricultural water development will clearly be a major means of poverty reduction for the region. Supplementary irrigation in smallholder rainfed agriculture requires small scale approaches and in principle lends itself well to investments that many of the poor farmers could make. One important issue for governments and donors is to empower poor farmers.

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Investments in African irrigation have been largely driven by donors and governments. There is growing awareness and explicit recognition of the variety of roles that the private sector can actually play in agricultural production, often outside the formal, public sector. This has given rise to a number of initiatives to promote private sector participation in irrigation and agriculture, in smallscale irrigated areas as well as for the larger irrigation schemes.

The recent conference that scrutinized African Successes (NEPAD-IFPRI-CTA-INWENT, 2003) recommended as very effective investments by African governments to increase food security and improve livelihoods: (1) the mobilizing and empowering of smallholder farmers and farmer organizations, and (2) the development of agricultural markets.

A World Bank report (World Bank-PSDED 1993) highlights key lessons on the respective roles of the private sector and governments with special emphasis on the development of markets. Despite structural adjustments and efforts to provide the enabling environment for more private investment or private sector participation in irrigation, “markets [just] do not spring magically to life as the public sector downsizes.” The NEPAD Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program (CAADP) recognizes that one of the four critical needs identified for moving from dialogue to action is a “concerted action to promote private sector engagement and interest” (NEPAD, 2003).

Intensification of agriculture needs a wide range of enterprises that supply inputs (seed, fertilizer, water, equipment, information, etc) and a wide range of enterprises that deal with produce (transport, food processing, selling, etc). Many of these are very small (micro-enterprises), many are small, some are medium sized. The very diverse group is here taken under the term of micro SMEs. Intensification of agriculture needs to go hand in hand with intensification of agricultural micro SMEs.

Public sector actors, particularly government agencies and also donors, have a big role to play with respect to private sector investments. On the one hand there is the priming of investments to kick start processes, but mainly there is the facilitation of the investment process such that farmers and micro SMEs are encouraged to proceed. Facilitation includes training, demonstration, information centres, adequate legislation, setting up institutions to empower farmers and micro SMEs, quality control of agricultural inputs and produce, transfer of management of irrigation schemes to empowered farmers, arranging for credit schemes, etc. Facilitation, which requires effort and hence money, is more important than financial investment per se.

We may identify also cases where government investments (read ‘interventions’) in the past were stifling local development by imposing rigid guidelines where flexibility (towards natural conditions) is required and stimulating production when markets cannot absorb the produce, and by guaranteeing fixed but low prices. Disinvestment, rather than investment, is the keyword here. Interesting examples (Office du Niger in Mali, the northern Plateau in Burkina Faso) will be analyzed.


The goal of this component is to recommend ways to promote private sector participation in agricultural water use for poverty reduction, food security and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).The specific objectives are:

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To show that the private sector is very large and diverse, as it includes hundreds of millions of small farmers in addition to the many small agricultural enterprises, and particularly that the sector can be a major source of investments;

To identify the “do’s and don’ts” with respect to facilitation of investments by the private sector; and

To recommend practical ways by which governments and donors can promote private sector investments or to remove constraints, e.g., by encouraging PPP’s such as water users associations.

The study will consider different types of agricultural water development and water use, including subsistence agriculture, cultivation of profit-oriented high-value crops, smallholder farming, and peri-urban agriculture. It will examine successful examples of private sector involvement in the various functions or processes, including planning, design, construction, operations and maintenance, rehabilitation and modernization, monitoring and evaluation. It will, to the extent possible, seek synergies with the typologies/schemes being used by other components of the overall agricultural water use investment research program. The study will focus on investment decisions that are made in agriculture at the household level, at the community level, in micro SMEs, and on those by governments that do affect significantly the conditions that influence decisions by households, communities and enterprises.

METHODOLOGY

We focus on the decisions about investments by and for the private sector. How can these be guided, promoted?

We distinguish four primary levels of decisions on investments by and for the private sector:

Decisions by individual farmers. Many of them (1) have few natural and other resources. This may be the largest group, and is difficult to reach. There are also (2) many farmers, sometimes called emerging or new commercial farmers, who are already active participants in the market economy. Thirdly, there are also (3) large commercial farmers who are already real entrepreneurs. (Note that a ‘farmer’ is more often a woman then a man, and increasingly a ‘weak’ person due to age (old or very young), HIV/AIDS and works under severe constraints of available labor).

Decisions by farmer organizations and communities.

Decisions by (1) national institutes and (2) government agencies that affect the private sector, such as regarding rules and regulations and investments in infrastructure.

Decisions by micro, small and medium size agricultural enterprises that affect the use of water, such as regarding supply chains of agricultural products, produce markets.

This study will bring together from formal and informal sources, knowledge about successful investments by and for members of the private sector. This will provide a view of the current types and levels of investment by the private sector itself. It will also show examples of how the public sector can facilitate this process. For a number of gaps in the knowledge about private sector investments, we will carry out fieldwork to find answers to targeted questions. The insights into the ‘what’, ‘why’ and ‘who’ in decision making for investments will lead us to recommendations for governments and investment banks with respect to what they can do with and for the key actors.

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This study will consider a range of elements of the enabling environment, including:

the regulatory policies that determine access to and efficient allocations of resources or inputs (such as labor, capital, land and water);

the principal determinants of the costs of transactions for the private sector player;

the factors (e.g., related to institutions, finance, marketing) that contribute to or hinder the acquisition of technological capability and the consequent development and distribution/marketing of “appropriate” technology;

the operation of support services/agents; and

private sector responses to deficiencies in management of infrastructure.

ACTIVITIES

A review of the formal and informal literature on agricultural investments in Africa will be carried out with 5 foci: (1) on investments that depend on decisions made by individual farm households (with attention to the role women play in decisions making and including the conditions under which off-farm incomes is invested in agriculture), (2) decisions made by small communities and groups of farmers, (3) decisions made by micro SMEs, (4) and decisions made by governments, major donors and investment banks about the private sector investment opportunities. (5) The Asian experience will be brought in and scrutinized for relevance in the African situation.

For the review, we draw on experiences acquired in the field of small and medium enterprises (SMEs) outside agriculture (e.g., in the field of solar energy and input supply). We will also make use of the findings of a number of recent reviews of private irrigation development conducted by organizations such as the World Bank, Winrock, IPTRID and IWMI, as well as the results of research and case studies published in the Proceedings of the FAO-IWMI-CTA Regional Seminar on Private Sector Participation and Irrigation Expansion in sub-Saharan Africa (Sally and Abernethy 2002).

There will be gaps in the information obtained from literature that can be filled, partially, through rapid surveys, probably at the farm, community and micro SME levels of decision making. Through such targeted surveys in several African countries, we will uncover some of that information. In this phase, the role of African consultants and partners will be important. Recommendations will be formulated for government and for investment banks with respect to each of the four categories of decision making. These will be exposed to seasoned decision makers before the final report is finished.

The results of the previous three tasks (review, new knowledge, recommendations) will be presented in full in reports. The final report will present a brief summary of these and highlight the recommendations. Annexes 2.2 and 2.3 provide information on the tasks, staffing, and milestones.

SYNERGIES

This study has strong synergies with other ongoing IWMI research projects as well as with other components of the Collaborative Program. Insofar as IWMI research is concerned, it will draw on the following projects:

Multiple Use Water Supply Systems, a Challenge Program on Water and Food research project in 5 major river basins and with 6 lead and 20 local partners to identify models for self financing by rural communities of water supply systems that satisfy both productive and domestic needs;

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The Small-scale Water System Innovations project, in which 6 Ph.D. studies are being carried out to determine how small scale innovations in water management affect the catchment and basin water flows;

The ‘Bright Spots’ project in which we analyze why certain communities escape poverty and emerge as bright spots in their environment, and how this process could be repeated elsewhere. A follow up of this work is being prepared, among others with IFPRI and NEPAD;

Waste water research in peri-urban environments where investments by small farmers and entrepreneurs are doing very well, economically;

Analysis of the impact of farmer investments in treadle pumps, 10 years after their introduction, in Kenya; and

A state of the art review of ‘Micro-irrigation”.

The work carried out under these research projects includes documentation and analyses of various smallholder activities and initiatives in water and agriculture, and the associated factors that determine their success or otherwise. These are, in fact, different forms of private sector participation in agricultural water use. The results, findings and lessons learnt will enrich and broaden the private sector component of the Collaborative Program.

In addition, this study will pull together aspects of the other component studies, in particular the ‘poverty’ and ‘planning’ components, which deal with the private sector. The poverty component examines and analyzes the impacts of private sector agricultural water initiatives on poverty reduction. It will identify factors that motivate and facilitate private sector participation and investment and thereby also contribute to the private sector study. The private sector study brings together in a single component the various areas of private sector contribution and performance in agricultural water use. This component will therefore provide a better understanding of the sector, what it does best and under what conditions it can contribute to improving project planning and implementation. Governments, donors and other role-players will thereby obtain clarity on what incentives and policy environment to put into effect in order to promote and sustain even greater private sector participation.

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ANNEX 2.1 LogframeINTERVENTION LOGIC OBJECTIVELY VERIFIABLE INDICATORS MEANS OF VERIFICATION ASSUMPTIONS

GoalTo promote innovative private sector participation in agricultural water use for poverty reduction, food security and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).

Increased levels of investment in agricultural water use in SSAGrowth in agricultural GDP

Donor and government reportsNational and regional policy documentsNational statistics

Global economic environment does not hold up African development;

Governance of countries becomes increasingly pro-poor.

PurposeThe goal of this component is to recommend ways of promoting private sector participation in agricultural water use for poverty reduction, food security and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa.

Written and evaluated recommendations governments and donors to promote greater participation of private sector in national and regional investment strategies and plans

Final project report received. Investors willing to invest in good projects.

Conducive investment environment and acceptable level of returns that encourage and sustain investments

OutputsA report identifying- opportunities and constraints for private sector investments in agricultural water development and management- recommendations to governments, investment banks and donors on how they can promote such investments

Report written. Consultations held and final report disseminated

Report received. Credible primary data collected without delay.

ActivitiesReview literature on decision making with respect to private sector investment in agricultural water development and management in SSA; Fill gaps in knowledge regarding key issues through primary research.Develop recommendations for action by governments, investment banks and donors. Coordination of the study team.

Reports of components written (will be annexes in the full report).

Surveys conducted and analyzed.

Recommendation written.

Progress reports to the overall study coordinator.

Progress reports overall study coordinator received.

Consultants/national researchers with good track records can be found.

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ANNEX 2.2 Tasks and Staff time allocation, WorkplanTask Subtask Keywords IWMI Staff

(see Annex 3) and –time (days)

Consultant (name, cost in US$)

Method/Output Links with other projects

Funds

1. Literature review 1.1 Investments by farmers

Amounts, sources, equity, gender, decisions, small scale equipment (TPs, drip irrigation, soil improvements)

HS 5FPV 5

(e.g., review by N. Moon, Approtec; 2k)

Literature, recent workshops (UNESCAP-IWMI-FAO) / =Annex 1, 10 pg

‘Publications’

1.2 Investments by community, farmer organization

Amounts, sources, control, initiative, FMIS, RWH, stream diversions, wetlands; credits

HS 10 C. Nakhumwa, 3k

Literature, input from MUWSS-study (BvK); Ngigis work, African Successes-IFPRI-NEPAD / =Annex 2 10 pg

MUWSS, SSI, ‘wetlands’

1.3 Investments by micro SMEs

Amounts, by whom, conditions; role credits; regulations and ‘red tape’

AI 2 Literature, NGO experiences / =Annex 3 15 pp

1.4 Investment decisions by governments and donors

Facts, trends, impacts, power relations, land tenure and water rights and access; legislation, certification, training

AI 10 (e.g., Dr I. Hannam, CEL, 3.5 k)

Literature / =Annex 4, 8 pg

1.5 Asian experiences

Drivers in success stories FPV 3TS 2

(e.g., W. Techo, PDA, or Deepak Adikari, IDE 2k)

Literature (incl. Report KP et.al. on opportunities Asian technology in E. Africa) / = Annex 5, 8 pg

Bright Spots

2. New knowledge 2.1 Investments by farmers

Small scale technologies incl micro-irrigation, water+compost (Ghana), conservation tillage

FPV 7BvK 1AK 2 dOC 3 d

(e.g., Muliokela, GART 2k)

Survey, analysis, conclusions; / =Annex 6, 10 pg

Poverty component, ‘IFAD’ study; Ghana waste water

2.2 Investments by community, farmer organizations

FMIS, RWH, stream diversions, wetlands; ways to organize and secure investments

HS 7d AK 3 d OC 2

B. Mati, JKU, 3k Survey, analysis, conclusions; Ngigi’s work, African Successes (incl. ‘Office du Niger’, C. Rey) / =Annex 7 10 pp

2.3 Investments by micro SMEs

Farm inputs (information, annual supplies, one off investments), farm outputs (markets, transport), supply

AI 10 d Survey, analysis, conclusions / =Annex 8, 10 pp

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Task Subtask Keywords IWMI Staff (see Annex 3) and –time (days)

Consultant (name, cost in US$)

Method/Output Links with other projects

Funds

chain.3. Recommendations to governments, investment banks, donors

3.1 To empower farmers

Information services, socio-econ. environment, ownership, training

FPV 4 For 3.1-3.4: consultant advised by NEPAD, 2.5 k

10-20 recommendations plus actors

3.2 To empower communities

Facilitate creation farmer organizations, institutions, opening markets

HS 4 10-20 recommendations plus actors

3.3 For public sector actions

Adequate ownership, regulations, enforcing

AI 4 10-20 recommendations plus actors

3.4 For public-private partnerships

Creating markets, auctions, information provision (e.g., MSSRF and Kenyan example)

AI 4 10-20 recommendations plus actors

4. Coordination 4.1 Project coordination, report

FPV 10 Professional editing 2k

Final Report Component PSI; 10-20 pp, with 8 annexes

Total 96 d US$ 20 k 10-20 pp, plus 100 pp in Annexes

Abbreviations used:

AI - Dr. Arlene Inocencio, IWMI-PretoriaAK - Dr Abdul Kamara, IWMI-AccraBvK- Dr Barbara van Koppen, IWMI-PretoriaOC - Dr Funke Cofie, IWMI-AccraFPV - Dr Frits Penning de Vries, IWMI-PretoriaHS - Dr Hilmy Sally, IWMI-PretoriaTS - Dr. Tushar Shaah, IWMI-Gujarat

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Task Description Key personJan04

Feb04

Mar04

Apr04

May04

June04

Jul04

Aug04

Sept04

Oct04

Nov04

Dec04

1Inception report FPV milestone Inception report 31/01/04 Review and feedback by ADB and WG ADB and partners

2Desk review FPV 2.1Farmer investment FPV/HS 2.2Community investments HS 2.3Micro SME's investments AI 2.4Ownership of resources AI

2.5Relevant Asian experiences FPV/TS milestone Desk review report 15/04/04

2.1Review and feedback by ADB and WG ADB and partners

3New knowledge FPV 3.1Farmer investments FPV/BvK/AK/OC 3.2Community investments HS/AK/OC

3.3SME & micro SME's investments AI milestone Case studies report 31/08/04


4Recommendations to governments, investments banks, other donors FPV

4.1To empower farmers FPV 4.2To empower and facilitate communities FPV 4.3For public sector actions FPV

4.4For public-private partnerships FPV milestone Draft Component report 31/09/04


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Task Description Key personJan04

Feb04

Mar04

Apr04

May04

June04

Jul04

Aug04

Sept04

Oct04

Nov04

Dec04

4.6Write component final report FPV milestone Component final report 31/10/04

5Coordination FPV

6Contribute to draft synthesis report FPV

Contribute to final synthesis report FPV milestone Final synthesis report FPV

milestones

AI Dr. Arlene Inocencio, IWMI-PretoriaAK Dr. Abdul Kamara, IWMI-AccraBvK Dr. Barbara van Koppen, IWMI-PretoriaOC Dr. Olofunke Cofie, IWMI-AccraFPV Dr. Frits Penning de Vries, IWMI-PretoriaHS Dr. Hilmy Sally, IWMI-PretoriaTS Dr. Tushar Shaah, IWMI-Gujarat

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3. Health and Environmental Aspects


Development of water resources for agriculture impacts on human health and the environment in multiple, varied and complex ways. Often yields in irrigated agriculture are higher than in rain fed agriculture making more food or income available to farmers. This may lead to better nutrition and so increase resistance to disease or increased income may be spent on improved health care. Changes in the environment caused through agricultural water development can have both positive and negative implications for health. For example, increased availability of water, even of relatively low quality, can greatly reduce water-washed diseases. Conversely by providing breeding sites for disease vectors, such as Anopheles mosquitoes and snails, there may be an increase in water-related diseases, such as malaria and schistosomiasis (Boelee, 2003).

Agricultural water development also causes social changes that impact on health. For example, seasonal labourers can bring infectious and non-communicable diseases to an area. Today, SSA is bearing the brunt of the HIV/AIDS crisis (approximately 75% of the 42 million people living with the disease are in Africa) and many rural communities, now and in the future, have to deal with consequences of the epidemic. Since, it often strikes during the most productive years (i.e., ages 15 to 49) HIV/AIDS has severe implications for the availability of agricultural labour. However, good nutrition is recognized as being key to helping people fight HIV/AIDS related infections and food security, enhanced through agricultural water development, can make an important contribution to alleviating the devastating impact of HIV/AIDS.

Agricultural water development can have a significant impact on livestock-keeping with associated health and environment implications. In many irrigation systems livestock not only benefit from the easing of water supply constraints, but may also be major consumers of crop residues. Livestock keeping may be a positive benefit to health, not just through contribution to improved nutrition and wealth, but also indirectly through processes such as zooprophylaxis (i.e., reduction in malaria prevalence caused by mosquitoes being attracted to cattle in preference to people). It can also make significant contributions to environmental protection, particularly in mixed farming systems where there are appropriate balances of crops and animals. On the other hand, livestock grazing may have undesirable environmental and health implications. For example, watering at wells and along the edges of water bodies such as reservoirs leads to removal of vegetation, increased sedimentation, water pollution through feces and urine, contamination of domestic water with zoonotic parasites and may create environments more favourable for insects that transmit diseases. The impact of livestock often extends over large areas, even when the water development is relatively small.

In many cases the negative impacts of agricultural water development may be mitigated and the positive impacts enhanced through careful design and management. Measures for environmental control are primarily focused on approaches that prevent negative impacts through improved scheme design. For example, by designing systems which simultaneously reduce the chances of soil erosion and avoid the characteristics that favour the development of habitat suitable for disease vectors. In some cases investments in improved management of existing systems may lead to significant improvements in health and the environment.

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For administrative purposes the livestock module of the investments project is included within the Health and Environment (H & E) component. The livestock module will include an evaluation of the H & E implications of modifying livestock management as a result of investments in agricultural water. However, it will not be limited to inputs to this component alone. Contributions of the livestock module to other components are presented in the relevant sections of this report and a full description of the livestock component is given in Section 4.


Clearly, an understanding of H & E implications of investments in agricultural water development is a prerequisite to deciding when and where investments are most appropriate and for improving design and management. The objective of this component of the investment study is to contribute to a better understanding of:

the environmental and health implications (positive and negative) of different forms of agricultural water development in SSA, and

the opportunities for mitigating negative impacts and promoting positive impacts.

This component will utilize findings from the CGIARs Systemwide Initiative on Malaria and Agriculture (SIMA) that is coordinated by IWMI and is investigating water and land practices across a range of crops and ecosystems to determine the farming activities that encourage and discourage, the breeding of malaria vector mosquitoes. It will also incorporate findings from existing IWMI programs, including research relating to: i) the risks and benefits derived from the use of waste-water in irrigation; ii) approaches to reduce malaria in paddy cultivation; and iii) the health impacts associated with rainwater harvesting and small-scale water storage. In addition it will utilize results obtained from a wide range of ILRI projects as well as other CGIAR and non-CGIAR studies.

METHODOLOGY

This study will provide evidence-based recommendations geared to informing decision-making about investments in agricultural water development. For the H & E component to fulfil this objective it is necessary to provide insights that can be generalized and from which patterns or trends for particular types of agricultural water development scheme2 can be derived. This is a complicated task for a number of reasons:

All schemes are unique. The magnitude and nature of H & E impacts depend on the juxtaposition of a wide range of biophysical and socio-economic factors and complex interactions between the design of the scheme and the way that it is operated.

Schemes do not occur in isolation (either in space or time) and it is often difficult to isolate the impact of the scheme from other factors causing change.

Small incremental changes are difficult to measure and may go unnoticed. Neither the costs nor the benefits of schemes are evenly distributed amongst different

social groups and stakeholders. H & E impacts of a scheme may occur a great distance from where it is implemented.

In order to develop generic findings and enable recommendations to be made a systematic approach to data collection and evaluation is required. To this end the H & E study will be based on the following four elements:

2 In this component of the project the word “scheme” is used to encompass not only traditional or formal irrigation systems but also non-traditional, informal, investments such as small-scale development (e.g., treadle pumps and collector wells, etc.).

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a classification of investment types (i.e., a typology of schemes) a classification of agroecological regions/agricultural production systems a conceptual framework to evaluate the impacts of schemes and in which the linkages

between environment and health are made as explicit as possible. quantitative information that can be linked directly to the type of scheme and/or the

agroecological region/agricultural production system in which the scheme is located.

Scheme Typology In common with many complex systems, agricultural water schemes have numerous characteristics that can be used as the basis of classification and a wide range of typologies has been developed (e.g., by FAO). For use in this component a preliminary typology has been devised based on attributes that it is anticipated will have the greatest influence on H & E impacts:

scheme size: large (> 1000 ha), medium (200-1,000 ha), small (10-200 ha) and micro (< 10 ha)

water source: surface water or groundwater form of water application: flood/furrow, sprinkler or drip

The typology developed differs from that used in the Cost component of the study, but is considered more approapriate for H & E assessment. Nonetheless there are recognized limitations with the typology as it stands at present. Because of these limitations it is proposed to collect information on as wide a range of scheme attributes as possible to enable modification of the classification typology following analyses of the data.

Definition of agro-ecological regions/agricultural production systems

Climate exerts the most significant control over biophysical processes and hence the nature of agricultural production systems. It is also a significant factor in determining the nature of H & E impacts associated with different types of agricultural water development. Impacts may be magnified or mitigated depending on the geographical location of a scheme and the prevailing climate. Hence, climate provides a basis for attempts to generalise the impact of agricultural water development on health and the environment. The primary basis of the ILRI livestock production system classification is three different agro-ecological zones based on climate (i.e., humid/subhumid, arid/semi-arid and temperate/tropical highland). For this study it is proposed to use these three classes in conjunction with the associated ILRI production systems typology (Thorton et al., 2002).

Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework for this component of the study was outlined in the TOR. In brief, it recognises that the well-being of individuals and communities is determined by a wide range of economic, social and environmental factors as well as by heredity and health care. Any change to physical or social environment will have impacts on health. Consequently any agricultural water development will have health impacts (Figure 3.1). Health is improved by poverty reduction, increased food security, distributional equity, community empowerment and improved environmental quality. Negative health impacts are associated with increases in communicable diseases (i.e., vector borne, zoonoses, gastro-intestinal, geohelminths), increase in non-communicable diseases as well as more subtle manifestations (e.g., psychosocial disorders such as alcoholism) linked with social impacts. As far as possible this

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study will identify both positive and negative impacts as well as the direct and indirect impacts.

Quantitative Indicators For comparison and generalisation it is necessary to obtain quantitative information and indicators that show changes from periods before and after the implementation of a scheme and which are verifiably attributable to the scheme. A range of possible indicators has been identified, relating to health and environmental impacts. It is anticipated that this information will be obtained from the literature as well as for specific case studies (see method) from scheme planning and development reports, clinic records, department of health records, department of agriculture surveys and field tour reports, records from other government ministries (e.g., department of water resources) and from post scheme evaluation documents.

Figure 3.1: Influence of Agricultural Water Development on Human Health

ACTIVITIES

This study will collect and collate the best available quantitative information relating to different types of agricultural water investment. The first phase of the H & E component will comprise a review of literature, including “grey” literature. It is intended to seek information from a range of institutions including donors (i.e., banks and national development organizations), international and national agencies (e.g., UN agencies, consulting firms, government departments and river basin authorities) and NGOs. The review will be conducted to obtain both baseline (i.e., generic findings pertaining to different scheme types in different agro-ecological zones) and scheme-specific H & E information. As far as possible the study will draw on original data sources. Reports that provide only qualitative information on impacts or are based on an authors’ opinion alone will not be used.

A database of scheme H & E impacts will be established. For each scheme the intention is to collect information in systematic manner that will facilitate the development of generic findings and will enable trends and patterns to be determined in relation to scheme type and agro-ecological zones/agricultural production system. To facilitate this process a standard data sheet/checklist will be completed for each scheme investigated. Analyses of the data collected, possibly using SPSS, will establish the balance of scientific evidence for specific impacts.

On the basis of the findings obtained from the literature review, “gaps” in knowledge will be identified and case studies will be selected for in-depth reviews that will be conducted to fill these gaps. Gaps may be associated with a specific type of scheme or a particular agro-

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Agricultural Water Development

Environmental Change

• abiotic + biotic• local + distant

• immediate + long-term

Socio-Economic Change

• food security • poverty

• institutions

Health Impacts

• positive + negative

ecological zone/production system. For the case studies, information will be collected in greater detail, but it is anticipated that the same approach will be adopted. It is not intended to use the checklist as a field questionnaire, but it will be used to guide the information that will be sought from each of the case studies investigated.

SYNERGIES

The agriculture and livestock work (Section 4) is managed as a sub-component of the H & E study; clearly, there are significant synergies in these areas. This component will draw on work undertaken in a number of IWMI research projects in SSA, notably the studies on the health impacts of small-dams, the Systemwide Initiative on Malaria in Agriculture (SIMA), and the potential risks and benefits of recycling waste for peri-urban agriculture. The H & E component will also work closely with other components of the collaborative program. Subject to the availability of relevant data, the following analyses will be undertaken:

An evaluation of the cost of environmental impact and health impact assessments, as well as measures implemented to mitigate negative affects. It is hoped that this will provide insight into the proportional cost of these activities in relation to the total cost of irrigation schemes in sub-Saharan Africa. Clearly this will be directly relevant to the irrigation cost component of the study.

An evaluation of the extent to which the performance of schemes may have been downgraded as a result of the “technical failure” to foresee negative H & E impacts (e.g., through salination of soil). This will be directly relevant to the planning and implementation component of the study.

An evaluation of differences between the public and private sectors in the scale of investments in H & E impact assessments and consequent mitigation measures. It is anticipated that this will inform the private sector participation component on the need, or not, to regulate the private sector in relation to H & E issues.

To ensure further synergies, as far as is practicable, the case studies selected will be the same as those chosen for other project components.

OUTPUTS

It is intended that project findings will inform and influence donors and investors in decision making related to the appropriateness of different types of agricultural water investment in different regions of sub-Saharan Africa. As such the project outputs, which will be as practicable and as specific as possible given available information, will be useful for policy and strategy planning as well as project development.

Specifically outputs from this component will be:

A database, developed from available literature and comprising quantitative information, which it is anticipated will provide a benchmark of aggregated knowledge on the H & E impacts of investments in agricultural water.

A publication on the inter-linkages between environmental and health impacts of agricultural water development in a representative set of agricultural production systems across sub-Saharan Africa. This will include evaluation of environmental and health impacts of livestock keeping within the context of agricultural water development.

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Recommendations on how to mitigate negative environmental and health impacts of agricultural practices (including livestock keeping) whilst simultaneously enhancing the benefits of agricultural water development in sub-Saharan Africa.

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ANNEX 3.1 Logframe

Brief Description Indicators Assumptions

ObjectiveTo contribute to optimization of the benefits to be gained from the future development of agricultural water development in SSA.

PurposeTo review and systematically analyze existing information sources on multiple environmental and health impacts of irrigated agriculture in SSA and to formulate recommendations to ameliorate negative and enhance positive impacts.

Recommendations endorsed by key development institutions including the World Bank, IFAD, African Development Bank and NEPAD.

Information sources exist, accessible and provide sufficient information for analysis

OutputsA database, developed from available literature and comprising quantitative information, which it is anticipated will provide a benchmark of aggregated knowledge on the H & E impacts of investments in agricultural water.

A publication on the inter-linkages between health and the environmental impacts of agricultural water development in SSA.

Recommendations on how to mitigate negative environmental and health impacts of agricultural practices (including livestock keeping) whilst simultaneously enhancing the benefits of agricultural water development in sub-Saharan Africa.

Database developed by 31/08/04.

Report with review of health and environmental impacts published by 31/10/04.

Recommendations included in overall project report, published by 31/12/04.

Other relevant research projects provide

additional information.


Activities

Review of information sources

Identification of knowledge gaps

Case studies and collection of secondary data

Analysis and consolidation and development of recommendations

Report writing

List of sources available

Listing available

Hard/electronic copies of data available

Draft recommendations available

Draft reports available

Qualified local consultants are identified


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ANNEX 3.2 Task and Staff Time Allocation

Task Subtask IWMI Staff and –time (d)

Consultant (name, cost)

Method/ output Links with project

1. Literature review Design approach to data collection

MM 2EB 1OC 1

Scheme typology

Definition and maps of agro-ecological regions and agricultural production systems

List of quantitative indicators

Checklist for scheme reviews Initiate IWMI library search

MM 1EB 1OC 1

Contact Identified institutions

MM 1EB 1OC 1

Complete scheme fact sheets

MM 3 EB 3OC 3CM 2

Literature Review

Database of H & E impacts

SIMA, Small dams in EthiopiaMwewa, Kenya

Analyze data for patterns and trends and write report

MM 5EB 3OC 3CM 2FA 1

Desk review report

2. New knowledge Identify knowledge gaps

MM 1 EB 1OC 1CM 1FA 1

Initiate case studies MM 1EB 1OC 1

Link with other project components

36

Task Subtask IWMI Staff and –time (d)


Method/ output Links with project

CM 1Complete case study fact sheets and add to database

MM 2EB 2OC 2CM 2

To be identified when case studies selected(total available – US$ 25,000)

Case study reports

Additions to database

3. Synthesis Recommendations to governments, investment banks

Bring together lit review and case studies


Write component final report

MM 3 EB 2OC 2CM 2FA 1

Final component synthesis report

Contribute to final project synthesis and recommendations


4. Coordination Project coordination MM 3EB 2OC 2

Contribution to final synthesis report

Final Workshop MM 2EB 2OC 2

Total 100 d

MM – Dr Matthew McCartney 30 days EB – Dr Eline Boelee 25 days OC – Dr Olufunke Cofie 25 days CM – Dr Clifford Mutero 15 days FA – Dr Felix Amerasinghe 5 days

37

ANNEX 3.3 Gantt Chart Task# Description Key person(s) Jan-

04Feb-04

Mar-04

Apr-04

May-04

Jun-04

Jul-04

Aug-04

Sep-04

Oct-04

Nov-04

Dec-04

1 Inception Report 1.1 Design approach MM/EB 1.2 Develop conceptual framework MM/EB 1.3 Develop scheme typology MM/EB

Milestone Inception report 31/01/04

2 Literature review 2.1 Initiate IWMI library search MM 2.2 Contact identified institutions MM/EB/OC 2.3 Complete scheme fact sheets MM/EB/OC/CM 2.4 Analyze data for patterns/trends MM/EB/OC/CM 2.5 Write desk review report MM/EB/OC/CM

Milestone Desk review report 30/04/04

3 Case studies 3.1 Identify knowledge gaps MM/EB/OC/CM 3.2 Initiate case studies MM/EB/OC 3.3 Complete case study fact sheets Consultants

3.4 Analyze dataConsultants/MM/EB/OC/CM

3.5 Write field study report MM/EB/OC Milestone Field study report 31/08/04

4 Synthesis

4.1 Bring together lit review and case studies

MM/EB/OC/CM/AS

4.2 Write report (draft 30/09/04)MM/EB/OC/CM/AS

Milestone Theme synthesis –30/10/04

5 Overall project synthesis 5.1 Contribute to project synthesis MM/EB/AS 5.2 Write component synthesis report MM/EB

Milestone

Overall synthesis report 30/11/04

MM/EB

43

43

4. Agricultural Water and Livestock Production


Livestock keeping is one of the most important agricultural livelihoods practiced in Africa and particularly so in water scarce arid and semi-arid regions. Globally, livestock make up, on average, 45% of the agricultural contribution to GDP and more than half in some African countries (e.g., Sudan and Somalia). Not included in this indicator of economic importance of livestock are difficult to value roles such as the contribution of livestock to traction and transport that are essential for producing food crops and moving them to markets and consumers. While demand for food must grow by 50% over the next 20 years to sustain human population growth, the demand for livestock products is expected to double during the same period. This depends partly on progress in reducing poverty resulting in an increasing propensity of people to spend more disposable income on animal products particularly in urban areas. This is a phenomenon now well underway in Asia and expected in Africa.

Already, food production uses more than 70% of managed water in developing countries. Achieving a 50% increase in food production with the same amount of water is not possible without increasing water use efficiency. Because of the current importance and the higher rate of growth of livestock production, there is a great need to factor livestock production into planning for water resource development. As countries become more industrialized, livestock can use up to half of all agricultural water, and there is growing interest in using waste water for feed production. A crucial knowledge gap exists in understanding the role of livestock in overall water use and the efficiency of water use in livestock production. Animal production needs to be part of the solution and not the problem.

Water requirements for production of animal feed may be as much as 100 times greater than that needed for drinking. Animals raised on irrigated forages require much more “managed” water than those raised on rainfed grazing land. Even in rainfed mixed farming, production of water demanding feed such as Napier grass may compete with farmers’ ability to grow food crops. The challenge is to develop strategies of how, when and where to produce animal feed in order to minimize demand on irrigated water and to reduce competition with rainfed crop production. Increasing use of crop residues for animal feed and shifting feed sourcing to land unsuitable for rainfed crop production may be part of the solution. The trade-off between using irrigated water for forage production and food crops must be considered. Furthermore, strategic investments in watering points for livestock can help spread grazing pressure to areas where feed production does compete with human food production. Balanced and selected investment in water supply for livestock drinking may complement investment in water development for production of human food and animal feed.

Apart from the importance of animal production in African agriculture and food production, poorly managed livestock contribute to water contamination, degradation and depletion. Undesirable interactions of livestock with water resources aggravate the unacceptably low health standards of many Africans. Part of the solution to improved planning, development and management of water in Africa may be achieved through investment in better livestock keeping practices that are consistent with maximizing sustainable return on investments in future water resource development. Livestock grazing and watering along the edges of water bodies such as rivers and dams leads to removal of riparian vegetation, increased sedimentation, contamination of domestic water with zoonotic parasites and may create environments more favourable for mosquitoes that transmit several serious diseases especially

43

malaria. For example, in a recent study (Atwill et al. 2002), three metre wide buffer strips were shown to be 99.9% effective in filtering Cryptosporidium from agricultural run-off suggesting that this simple investment in water management could greatly reduce a ubiquitous human parasite that is a significant factor in people’s capacity to cope with HIV.

Briefly, there are needs for investment in water resource development for improved livestock production and in improved livestock management as a means to ensure more efficient and effective sustainable use of water resources for other purposes. This will explicitly address the need to mitigate the negative impacts that livestock-water interactions have on environment and human health.

The International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) will contribute to the Collaborative Program on Trends and Opportunities for Investment in Agricultural Water in Sub-Saharan Africa through the Health and Environmental Impacts component and provide insights into the need for investments in:

in water development necessary for the future viability and profitability of Sub-Saharan livestock production; and

better livestock management practices that will contribute to more effective and efficient use of water resources for other agricultural purposes. As a contribution to the Health and Environmental Impacts component, the livestock sub-component will address the following questions:

i. To what extent does poor animal management contribute to the degradation and contamination of water resources that have been developed through past interventions?

ii. What are the options for management practices (e.g., strategic spatial distribution of watering points) that may mitigate the negative environmental and health impacts of livestock keeping?

iii. What are the livestock-related human health risks associated with past water development in SSA, and how can these be reduced in future water resource development and management?

iv. What are the potential positive health impacts (e.g., zooprophylaxis) of livestock keeping and how are these best enhanced?

In addition, as a contribution to the overall Collaborative Program, this component will address the question:

v. What are the potential additional benefits of investments that integrate livestock, crops, and agricultural water?

METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH

While organizationally, this activity will be managed as part of the Health and Environmental Impacts component of the overall investment study, it will also, wherever practical, work in collaboration with other components to enhance understanding of the overall role of livestock in the development of water resources for agriculture. The outputs for the livestock-water activity will result from completion of seven major tasks (see annex 4.2). They are:

1. Review of literature and interviews with key informants. This activity will commence with a review of existing information available in published and selected grey literature and in the experience of “key informants” from the research and development community. Anticipated sources include libraries and archives of investor organizations,

43

African and developed country universities, NGOs and national and international agricultural and water research organizations. This activity will be based in Addis Ababa and may require travel from Ethiopia to West and Southern Africa and to key neighbouring countries in East Africa. Whenever appropriate and relevant, information from developed countries will be obtained through electronic means.

The review will attempt to answer a range of questions such as, but not restricted to the following:

a. What is the importance of livestock in farming systems targeted by past water development?

b. To what extent and how was past livestock development promoted or constrained as a result of this investment in water resources?

c. To what extent and where was the investment in water resources intended to increase livestock access to drinking water, production of animal feed and processing of animal products?

d. What are the livestock-related human health risks associated with past water development in SSA, and how can these be reduced in future water resource development and management?

e. To what extent does poor animal management contribute to the degradation and contamination of water resources that have been developed through past interventions?

f. Given that investments in strategic spatial distribution of watering points for livestock can enable sustainable grazing in rainfed areas, what factors contribute to past successes and failure in such investment?

g. To what extent can livestock products based on use of water for feed production function as “a high value” crop when this is necessary to justify investments in water development?

h. What and where are investments in water resources needed to promote livestock development in Sub-Saharan Africa?

i. What and where should investments in livestock management be made to ensure that livestock keeping does not threaten investments in water development?

j. What policy issues must be addressed and what investment in capacity building is necessary to ensure effective integration of livestock and water development? In other words, what are the possible synergies of integrated livestock-water resources development?

k. What livestock related water development indicators are needed to assess the impact and performance of investments in water development for agriculture?

2. GIS based stratification of SSA. Numerous digital spatial data bases exist to show Sub-Saharan agricultural production systems, land degradation, human demographic and health data and livestock production statistics. Using ILRI’s GIS facility and public domain data sets, a continent-wide set of maps and related tabular summaries will be used to describe the convergence of livestock production with water resources. A key approach will be to develop a SSA-wide stratification based on agricultural production systems that takes into account diverse livestock keeping practices. This will help identify, at a macro level, key constraints to livestock that may be overcome through investment in water development and mitigation of threats to water resources caused by poor management of livestock. The stratification will be used to help identify case studies that collectively will highlight key livestock-water issues representative of SSA. The full scope of this activity will be dependent on procurement of additional funding.

40

Wherever possible and affordable, this activity will be carried out in a manner that contributes to the value of other components of the overall investment study and the synthesis thereof.

3. In-strata case studies of key livestock-water development. The livestock sub-component of the investment study will conduct desk based case studies to better understand the role that livestock management may have played in contributing to poor or good performance of past investment in water resources. These case studies will be selected to represent SSA-wide strata based on descriptions of agricultural production systems. They will give emphasis to strata where investment in water, livestock production (current and potential) and poverty intersect. Where possible, investigators will conduct interviews or surveys with key stakeholders such as decision makers, community based management groups and householders. Because of the overwhelming importance of livestock in the agricultural economy of certain countries (e.g., Sudan and Ethiopia), case studies may be selected within them where livestock development was an initial objective of the original investment in water resource development. In addition, extensive projects intended to reduce soil erosion and run-off may be included. Often, these projects were established to conserve land resources with little explicit thought to impact on down-slope water resources. However, poor management of livestock grazing frequently limits success in management of these rainfed agricultural production systems. Selected modelling of specific case examples may be undertaking to demonstrate INRM strategies needed for effective and sustainable water resource development and use. This livestock sub-study will be implemented in direct collaboration with the Environment Health and component of the investment study and the results and recommendations will be linked to recommendations emerging from the other the components.

4. Analyses of case studies. This activity will synthesize the lessons learned from the case studies.

5. Preparation of the draft report. In collaboration with other contributors to the Collaborative Program, the information arising from the literature review, the case studies and the GIS analyses will be synthesized and incorporated into a draft report and a PowerPoint presentation. The draft report and supporting papers (if any) will be circulated to key reviewers for comments and suggestions for improvement.

6. Stakeholder workshop. The draft report will be presented at one of the Stakeholder workshops planned under the Collaborative Program.

7. SSA-wide synthesis and development of recommendations. In collaboration with other components of the investment study, the livestock-water team will contribute to a coherent product to meet the needs of the World Bank, IFAD, FAO, IWMI, ADB and the Nepad secretariat. The modalities for doing this will be worked during the first 7 months of 2004.

8. Preparation of final report. After the workshop and in collaboration with other contributors to the Collaborative Program, a final report will be prepared. This will be a full technical report on findings and will include recommendations for investments as well as future research. It will be a contribution to the larger synthesis report to be produced under the Program. We may also produce a series of other documents such as

41

policy briefs for decision makers, and materials targeting lay audiences and development organizations.

OUTPUTS

The outputs of this component will be:

A review of the water requirements of livestock keeping and the impact of livestock keeping on water resources and water-related human health problems (e.g., malaria) in a representative set of agricultural production systems across sub-Saharan Africa. These will include extensive pastoral systems, mixed crop-livestock systems and rapidly expanding intensive industrial and smallholder urban and peri-urban livestock systems. The study will pay particular attention to the impact on poor children, women and men even where it is the relatively wealthy who own and manage the animals.

Through spatial modelling of demographics and projected trends in poverty and demand for livestock products, the study will highlight priority regions where:

o Investment in water for agriculture must consider livestock as an important production objective, and

o Livestock management must be improved to enable acceptable returns on investments in water for non-livestock production objectives.

Recommendations for effective and efficient investment options that will improve water use efficiency in livestock production and that will reduce water degradation caused by poor livestock management. These recommendations will high-light practical design and management options that individual farmers and farmers’ groups can easily adopt and policies and investment options governments and investors can use.

Identification of knowledge gaps related to livestock-water interactions that may require future investment in research.

We will try to identify innovative new approaches to investment in agriculture that integrate attention to livestock, crops and water resources development.

42

ANNEX 4.1 Logframe

Intervention Logic Objectively Verifiable Indicators Means of Verification AssumptionsOverall Objective

To contribute to the wider Collaborative Program on Investment in Agricultural Water Development in Sub-Saharan Africa through consideration of water requirements of livestock keeping as a production as poverty reduction strategy and by ensuring that inappropriate livestock management does not degrade existing and developed water resources.

Actual and planned public and private sector investment agricultural water in SSA as a whole with integration of improved livestock keeping practices.

Water and Livestock sectoral strategies, five year plans.

Government budgets NEPAD reports Annual reports by financial

institutions Government statistical reports FAO/WHO data bases Increased integrated livestock-water

research implemented in SSA

Agricultural production systems requiring water development continue to depend on or include livestock as a major component.

Immediate Objectives

In priority agricultural production systems of SSA: (a) To assess water development needs

for livestock production, (b) To identify improved livestock

keeping practices necessary to safe guard quality and quantity of agricultural water resources, and

(c) To identify potential benefits of investments that integrated livestock, crop and water management.

(d) To identify knowledge gaps requiring further research on integrated livestock and water management.

(a & b) Clear exposition of key livestock-water management issues that create demand for agric. Water or may constrain its sustainable use.

(c) Recommendations of investment options that involve livestock based on experience, best practices and stakeholders’ feed back

d) Research recommendations.

(a, b & c) Reports to the E&H component and to the steering committee including documented feed back from stakeholders’ consultations.

Outputs

Report on Agricultural Water Development and Livestock that

(a) Analyses of and recommendations (a, b & c) Periodic progress reports to Limited case studies will provide

43

Intervention Logic Objectively Verifiable Indicators Means of Verification Assumptionsfor effective and efficient investment options that will improve water use efficiency in livestock production and that will reduce water degradation caused by poor livestock management in priority regions of SSA,

(b) Identifies knowledge gaps related to livestock-water interactions that may require future investment in research and

(c) Contributes to the wider Coop. Program on Investment in Agric. Water in SSA, particularly the Health and Environment Component.

(a, b & c) Draft and final reports and documents including feed back from stakeholders’ consultations.

E&H component and to Steering Committee

principles applicable to a diverse range of social, economic and agroecological conditions characterizing SSA.

Activities

(a) Literature review and desk studies water development and livestock management issues,

(b) GIS based stratification of SSA,(c) In-strata desk review of case

studies,(d) Stakeholders’ workshops,(e) Dissemination of results.

(a) In country and regional workshops and consultations held and comments received.

(b) GIS database developed and spatial analyses completed.

(c) Stakeholders’ feedback.

(d) Reports.

(a, b, c, & d) Periodic progress reports to E&H component and to Steering Committee.

(b) Maps.

Government agencies and investors are willing to make information available and that negotiations for access will not delay the project activities.

43

ANNEX 4.2 Gantt ChartTask# Description Key person(s) Jan-

04Feb-04

Mar-04

Apr-04

May-04

Jun-04

Jul-04

Aug-04

Sep-04

Oct-04

Nov-04

Dec-04

1 Inception Report

1.1Design approach and conceptual framework

DP


2 Literature review 2.1 Desk review DP

2.2Development of a GIS-based stratification of SSA

ILRI –GIS staff

2.3 Write desk review report DP Milestone Desk review report 30/04/04

3 Case studies

3.1Identifykey livestock-water development issues

Consultants & DP

3.2Contribute to health and environment desk review report

DP

3.3 Analyze data from cases Consultants/DP 3.4 Write field study report DP/Consultants

Milestone Field study report 31/08/04

4 Component synthesis report

4.1 Bring together lit review and case studies

DP

4.2 Write report (draft 30/09/04) DP Milestone Component report –30/10/04

5 Overall project synthesis

5.1 Contribute to overall synthesis DP

Milestone


DP

45

5. Study on Agricultural Water Development for Poverty Reduction in sub-Saharan Africa


The present study is a continuation of the component ‘Agricultural Water Development for Poverty Reduction in Eastern and Southern Africa’, funded by IFAD. This component of the overall Collaborative Program: was largely implemented in 2003 and will be completed by beginning of 2004. The findings will also be discussed in an IFAD workshop in Tanzania 15-19 March 2004.

As already concluded during the preparations of both the IFAD-funded component and the overall study, there will be a need for similar and comparative case studies of effective and efficient investments for poverty reduction elsewhere in Africa, in particular in Francophone and Anglophone West Africa. Further, there is a need to also include case studies of other financing agencies than IFAD.

Two significant findings of the IFAD study of are, first, that the private-sector based dissemination of treadle pumps, facilitated by the enterprise Approtec, emerged as one of the most effective forms of economic growth and poverty reduction, at minimal costs to the taxpayer. Second, the poverty impact assessment methodology adopted was fruitful. Further development and testing of this methodology in a sufficiently large sample and in different contexts is expected to lead to a ‘rapid poverty reduction impact appraisal’, which can feed into the other components of the overall study and other investments in agricultural water development. These two results are proposed to be taken forward in the present project, among others.


The present ADB-supported Poverty Study builds upon work already completed under the IFAD supported poverty study in East and Southern Africa. Its objectives are:

To carry out two or three case studies of promising investments in agricultural water development elsewhere in Africa and which are supported by agencies other than IFAD, in particular in Francophone and Anglophone West Africa, for further comparative study using the same conceptual framework adopted by the IFAD-supported poverty study for the assessment of gendered poverty impacts; and

To further apply, test, refine and generalize the gendered poverty impact assessment methodology adopted in the IFAD study, in order to develop a so-called generic ‘rapid poverty reduction appraisal’, applicable throughout sub-Saharan Africa.

The scope of work will also be guided by the outcomes, identified knowledge gaps, and recommendations for follow-up of the IFAD workshop 15-19 March 2004 in Tanzania.

METHODOLOGY

Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework adopted in the IFAD-supported poverty study (refer to Chapter 10 for detailed discussion) will be further refined. Updated literature on poverty processes, gender, and rural economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa will further corroborate the role of agriculture as an engine of economic growth, and especially highlight the role of smallholder agricultural growth. Further, linkages will be articulated between gender and poverty in the context of rural diversified livelihood strategies around farm and non-farm income, multiplier effects, private

46

sector technology supply chains, input provision, and marketing, and institutional and legal frameworks for land and water use, also in the context of Integrated Water Resources Management. This framework will not only guide the case studies but also provide the conceptual underpinnings of the rapid poverty reduction appraisal.

The case studies will be selected according to their relevance and potential efficiency and efficacy for rural poverty reduction in West Africa. Their comparability with the Eastern and Southern African case studies will further enhance generic understanding, while recognizing local specificity. By selecting Enterprise Works, the key player in treadle pump manufacturing and marketing in West Africa, as one of the case studies, better understanding will be generated on the pivotal question of “which successes in both Kenya and Tanzania (Approtec) and Niger and Burkina Faso (Enterprise Works) can be upscaled and under what conditions elsewhere?” A study of another type of agricultural investment aimed at poverty reduction concerning the fadamas in Nigeria may also be included as a case study.

ACTIVITIES

Literature Review and Recommendations of the IFAD Poverty Study

The study will start with the appreciation of the empirical results of the five case studies of the IFAD poverty study, in particular the treadle pumps by Approtec, and on the adopted poverty reduction impact assessment methodology. Gaps and still unanswered questions in the IFAD poverty study will be identified in collaboration with the various key stakeholders involved in that study, in particular during the workshop of 15-19 March 2004.

General literature will be reviewed to further corroborate the conceptualization of agricultural growth and gendered poverty reduction and the gender-differentiated methodologies adopted on the ground. The conceptual framework and methodologies will also be enriched by the results of various IWMI studies on poverty reduction impacts of investments in agricultural water development in Asia. Moreover, collaborative research between FAO, IWMI, and IUCN in Tanzania and Zambia on poverty- and gender-differentiated wetland use, benefits, and governance profiles will feed into the present study. The final selection of case studies will be made on the basis of the IFAD workshop and this literature review (see below). Then, desk studies will be done on the cases selected.

Case SelectionThe cases are most likely to include Enterprise Works; one or two other cases will be selected according to the criteria mentioned above, and in consultation with key stakeholders. As noted above, investment in fadamas in Nigeria is a strong candidate.

Empirical ResearchFor the various case studies an in-depth empirical study will be conducted among the range of stakeholders involved. For the case study of the public-private-sector driven establishment of a supply chain for treadle pumps in West Africa, synergy will be forged with the earlier case study of Approtec and the private sector component of the Collaborative Program. For other cases to be selected, synergy will be sought with the appropriate component.

On top of that, though, and specific for the present study, is an in-depth impact assessment among the poor and ultra-poor, differentiating for women and men. For each case study, interviews and focus group discussions will be conducted among some 100 – 150 households in

47

four – five communities affected by each project. This empirical approach not only allows to really listen to the voices of the poor and ultra-poor, men and women, themselves unlike too common claims about poverty alleviation about the poor. Moreover, this empirical impact assessment allows developing and testing the generic ‘rapid poverty reduction appraisal’.

Further, raw monitoring data of Approtec’s own poverty impact assessments that Approtec has put at the project’s disposal, will be further analyzed in close collaboration with Approtec.

Analysis and ReportingAnalysis and reporting in a first draft report will take be finalized by September 2004. Annexes 5.2 and 5.3 provide further details on the work plan.

SYNERGIES

Poverty is a cross-cutting issue throughout the project. Hence, the conceptual framework developed and refined in this component feeds into all components and the synthesis, and insights developed in other components, in particular the private sector component support the analysis here. The specific contribution of this poverty component is to analyze selected case studies explicitly and in-depth with regard to their efficacy and efficiency in alleviating human deprivation in rural areas, and simultaneously develop a rigorous generic conceptual and methodological basis for rapid poverty impact assessments. This study component will also liaise with several IWMI research projects that are focused on highlighting poverty impacts, what worked and why, and how efforts maybe up-scaled to increase poverty reducing impacts. Together, this component and the other IWMI studies will provide extensive and intensive analyses on various types of investments and their respective poverty impacts.

OUTPUTS

Project reports on the poverty impact assessment of Enterprise Works in West Africa and one or two other case studies.

Report on the ‘Efficiency and efficacy of treadle pump markets for gendered poverty alleviation in Sub-Saharan Africa: the cases of Approtec and Enterprise Works.’

Report ‘Generic Rapid Poverty Reduction Appraisal for sub-Saharan Africa. Contribution to the poverty focus throughout all components of this project. Consolidated poverty component report integrating results of this study and those of

IFAD.

48

ANNEX 5. 1 – Logframe (N.B. This is almost the same as the log frame in section 9, annex 9.1 only different in case study coverage)


To contribute to the wider Collaborative Program on Investment in Agricultural Water Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, thereby supporting NEPAD by catalyzing increased investment in agricultural water development for poverty reduction in the region.

Actual and planned public and private sector investment, for East and Southern Africa and, ultimately Sub-Saharan Africa as a whole.

Sectoral strategies, five-year plans and government budgets

Government budget reports NEPAD reports Annual reports by financial

institutions (including those of private sector)

Government statistical reports FAO databases


On the basis of experience to date to:(a) better understand the poverty

reduction impacts of various types of agricultural water development in West Africa;

(b) identify the most effective institutional and technological approaches; and

(c) derive lessons for the design of future agricultural water investments that will better alleviate poverty than those of the past

Clear exposition of poverty reduction, food security and economic growth impacts of past investments.

Recommendations for ‘best practices’ presented and validated/endorsed by stakeholders.

Working Group reports to Steering Committee

Draft and final report outputs.

Validation by stakeholders

Better understanding of poverty reduction impacts, as well as knowledge of the most effective institutional and technological approaches will lead to better project designs and improved quality of investment projects, which will in turn lead to increased investment.

Case studies will be representative of Sub-Saharan Africa.

Wider study will be implemented to augment that proposed.

Outputs

Report on Agricultural Water Development for Poverty Reduction in West Africa – that (a) analyses the poverty reduction impacts to date of agricultural water development projects/programs in West Africa (including alternatives to conventional irrigation approaches for the production of low value food crops), (b) provides recommendations on the best

Draft and final reports. Periodic progress reports from Working Group to Steering Committee.

Feedback from stakeholders

Appropriate study methodologies adopted.

Study reveals successes and concrete lessons that can be translated into specific recommendations.

Intervention Logic Objectively Verifiable Indicators Means of Verification Assumptionsinstitutional approaches (including policies, organizations, legal frameworks and those related to implementation arrangements) and technologies for consideration in the design of future projects/programs and (c) contributes to the proposed wider study on Agricultural Water Development for Poverty Reduciton in SSA.

Activities

1. Literature review and desk studies on promising institutional and technological approaches for pro-poor agricultural water development in West Africa2. Case studies/mini case studies on current/recently completed ADB or WB or other investment and research projects.3. Validation/endorsement of results through:

in-country workshops/seminars during course of case studies

4. Dissemination of results.

In country and regional workshops/consultations held and comments received

Draft and final reports disseminated.

Peer review comments, stakeholder consultation proceedings

Progress reports to Working Group.

Studies will clearly demonstrate significant and sustainable poverty reduction impacts from investment in agricultural water development in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Successful experience is replicable in West Africa

ANNEX 5.2 Task and Staff Time Allocation

Tasks Sub tasks IWMI staff and time (days)

Consultant and cost ( US$ ‘000)

Output

Desk reviewIncluding IFAD study BvK 2 Desk review report

Case studies Private Investments

Supply Chain

Poverty and gender impacts

-FPV 1

-HS 1 OC 2

-SM 6AK 30OC 8BvK 3PD 1

-

Consultant - 5.5K

Field assistants – $7K

Field study report

Synthesis methodology SM 6BvK 4

Draft component report

Overall project synthesis contribution

BvK 1 Draft overall report

Total 65 days $ 12.5KBvK - Dr. Barbara van Koppen, IWMI-PretoriaFPV - Dr. Frits Penning de Vries, IWMI-PretoriaHS - Dr. Hilmy Sally, IWMI-Pretoria SM - Dr. Sylvie Morardet, IWMI-PretoriaPD - Dr. Pay Drechsel, IWMI-AccraAK - Dr. Abdul Kamara, IWMI-AccraOC - Dr. Olofunke Cofie, IWMI-Accra


Task# Description Key person(s) Jan-04

Feb-04

Mar-04

Apr-04

May-04

Jun-04

Jul-04

Aug-04

Sep-04

Oct-04

Nov-04

Dec-04

1 Inception Report

1.1Contribute to integrated inception report

BvK


2 Literature review

2.1Desk review including IFAD poverty study

BvK

2.2 Write desk review report BvK Milestone Desk review report 30/04/04

3 Case studies 3.1 Implement case study BvK/AK/OC 3.2 Analyze data BvK/FPV/HS 3.3 Write field study report BvK

Milestone Field study report 31/08/04

4 Component synthesis report

4.1 Bring together results of case studies and the IFAD findings

BvK

4.2 Write report (draft 30/09/04) BvK Milestone Component report –30/10/04

5 Overall project synthesis 5.1 Contribute to overall synthesis BvK

Milestone


APPENDIX 2. OTHER COMPONENTS OF THE COLLABORATIVE PROGRAM

6. Regional Demand for Products of Irrigated Agriculture (FAO)3


Agriculture is the most important rural enterprise in Sub-Saharan Africa, contributing an average of 30% of total gross domestic product (excluding South Africa and Zimbabwe) and up to 40% in many countries of the region. Agribusiness is responsible for an additional 20%. Agriculture and the rural economy account for some 67% of employment in the region. Furthermore, agricultural growth can have significant multiplier effects on employment within the local non-farm economy through increased demand for goods and services from the small-scale enterprise sector. Since roughly 80% of the region’s poor live in rural areas, agricultural growth is the key to poverty alleviation.

Recent estimates by FAO indicate that 75% of the agricultural growth required in SSA by 2030 will have to come from intensification (in the form of yield increases and higher cropping intensities), with the remaining 25% coming from arable land expansion.

Sub-Saharan Africa presently has an estimated 5 million ha of irrigation (of which half is located in only two countries – Sudan and Madagascar). However, this area represents less than 15% of the physical potential and less than 5% of total arable land area, and. Moreover, the rate of new development is probably less than 1% per year. A recent analysis by FAO of irrigation growth in SADC countries indicates an annual growth rate of no more than 0.5%. This compares with an average growth rate for all developing countries (93) of 1.1%.

Notwithstanding the negative perceptions of under-performance/inefficiency within the sector referred to earlier, the picture that emerges from development to date is not uniformly bleak. For example, half of the 5 million ha currently irrigated have been developed ‘informally’ (i.e., by smallholders, without government or other external support) and are apparently self-sustaining and, in that sense, successful (although per ha crop yields may be less than optimum). And there are an increasing number of cases in which smallholders have, on their own initiative, taken advantage of market linkages, such as the spontaneous development of irrigation for sugar cane production in Swaziland, as well as innovative approaches, such as Masaku Ndogo in Kenya for export horticultural crop production.

However, although there is substantial remaining potential for irrigation, it should also be clear that this is finite and that even if the whole of this potential could be developed, it would still cover only one third of the total arable land area. Assuming a uniform population distribution, this suggests that possibly two thirds of the population of SSA would not derive any direct benefit from irrigation development and would remain exposed to yield instability. Furthermore, those who are excluded are likely to include many of the ‘poorest of the poor’.

It should also be clear that not all of the potential could be developed for high value crops, because of the finite nature of the market for such crops. This suggests that a proportion of the potential would have to be developed for lower value crops, including food crops (and indeed NEPAD/FAO’s rationale for increased investment in agricultural water management is based on the need to meet the future regional demand for food). Yet experience shows that

3 As suggested by FAO, we have used the detailed TOR previously agreed, for this chapter.

it is difficult to justify and sustain the cost of conventional irrigation for low value crops – which often also have their own marketing problems.

Two needs emerge from this. Firstly, although every opportunity to exploit the market for high value crops must be taken, there is a need to identify and develop viable alternatives to irrigation, such as water harvesting and soil moisture conservation, for wide-scale application to stabilise yields of lower value crops. Secondly, there is a need to identify more cost-effective solutions for conventional irrigation than those of the past, as well as to improve market access for lower value crops.

Despite its potential and obvious under-development, water use for agriculture in SSA is under threat. It already uses around 80% of annual withdrawals from rivers and aquifers (i.e., 80% of what is available from development to date) and is regarded as an inefficient user. With intensifying competition for what is becoming a scarce resource there is strong pressure to reduce allocations to agriculture and to divert water to other sectors (urban, industrial, mining and environmental/tourism) that are thought to be more profitable. Agriculture is now expected to produce ‘more crop per drop’.

As a consequence, water sector reforms in some countries of the region have pursued a somewhat negative approach to agricultural water development and use, sometimes in direct contradiction to recently prepared Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers that emphasise such development. Under the circumstances, since they have little or no voice in water debates and catchment planning, it is often the rural poor who are the most vulnerable to water sector reforms. A third need, therefore, may be the rationalisation of water sector reforms, to facilitate poverty reduction strategies.

FAO’s Support to Agricultural Water ManagementFAO maintains a strong country presence in sub-Saharan Africa and delivers support to agricultural water management through direct assistance in its technical co-operation program and the water control component of the Special Program for Food Security.

FAO’s support to the region is focussed on the improvement of agricultural production and related services to address food security, poverty alleviation and economic growth targets. Programs are tailored to individual countries on the basis of their individual agro-ecological and socio-economic settings. In undertaking policy and program support, close attention is paid to the fundamental drivers of food demand, population growth and dietary preferences as analysed in FAO’s World Agriculture: toward 2015/30. An FAO Perspective. Attention is also paid to supply of key agricultural products through the Global Information and Early Warding System on Food and Agriculture (GIEWS).

The harmonisation of country programs is dependant upon the development of regional perspectives based on national data compiled as part of the AT2030 Study (including water resource data derived from FAO AQUASTAT) and the regular regional GIEWS analysis of food supply and crop prospects for sub-Saharan Africa. It should also be noted that the AQUASTAT program is undertaking a comprehensive update of the whole of Africa. This update will be completed at the end of 2003. But preliminary indications are that there has been zero growth of irrigated area over the past decade.

In the past, the emphasis from many countries in the region has been a pre-occupation with realising irrigation potential on the basis of physical assets, on the assumption that specific nutrition gaps will persist and that irrigation would be a key instrument in closing those gaps. This expectation has not been validated. While these gaps do persist, the solution is not necessarily found in irrigation alone. Certain countries in the region have shown that improved rainfed production can have much more impact, in terms of food security and poverty alleviation, for lower inputs.

There is an urgent need to consolidate recent analysis of the region’s comparative advantage and potential in agriculture (Institute of Economic and Social Research 1999; Food Security Research Project 2000) and measure this against the prospects for the evolution of domestic and export markets and associated value added services. To date there exists no comprehensive analysis of the region’s markets in irrigated agriculture produce. The bulk of regional irrigation analysis and operation has been squarely focused on the supply of agricultural services and an assumption that enhanced production will be taken up – a tacit assumption of demand. It is of vital importance that national agriculture policies internalise a realistic assessment of market structures, conditions and prospects and assess their comparative advantage in a regional setting. Implicit in this is the need to validate estimates of food supply and demand and rates of growth required in both irrigated and rainfed agriculture to meet these demands internally, as well as assessing the farm-gate price prospects for food crops and the impact these might have on investment returns.

Prior to any direct investment in irrigation, the macro-economic circumstances, regional trade flows and the relative balance between rainfed and irrigated production in the region needs to be understood.

Once the scope of the problem is understood to a sufficient degree of precision, more detailed regional and national analysis of real opportunities for agricultural water management can be undertaken. A regional study is already in preparation with WB/FAO/ADB/IFAD/IWMI and FAO has a growing portfolio of irrigation strategy TCPs in the region (Zambia, Swaziland, Botswana, and Nigeria).


The objective of the demand study is to establish a regional perspective on market opportunities for the products of irrigated agriculture. The study outputs will form the basis for the production of the synthetic report.

The purpose of the study is to prepare a diagnosis of the opportunities and prospects for national, regional and international markets in irrigated agriculture for the Sub-Saharan region that can be fed into the synthetic report.

METHODOLOGY

The work would be carried out by means of a desk study and a series of visits to specific country and regional economic organisation institutions (SADC/COMESA/ECOWAS/ECA etc.) as required. It is expected that this work will be presented together with case studies/box material on current or recently completed projects dealing with irrigation strategy formulation. The desk study will have three components:

First, a baseline of current production and consumption patterns (including imported and exported products) will be established. This baseline will detail the following:

Demand: national demands in food as projected by AT2030 distribution, structure and character of agricultural markets across the zones, from small

remote communities to large centres of demand along principal trading routes; and comparative analysis of internal produce flows and transaction costs where data is

available; an analysis of market regulation (informal and formal).

Supply: distribution of production centres and zones and relation to agro-ecological zones and

farming systems(http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/AGRICULT/AGL/agll/gaez/index.htm and http://www.fao.org/farmingsystems/)

the structure of the irrigated sub-sector based on the FAO typology (see attached Annex 6.2).

value added processing; and Imports and exports: external produce flows and transaction costs in regional and sub-

regional markets

Second, a diagnosis of market performance and constraints within the given baseline will be prepared and is expected to focus on the following.

market performance production chain for irrigated agriculture – does it match demand? market linkages – local, regional and global market regulation (informal and formal) (possible SADC data) profitability

market constraints access to natural resources – land tenure and water rights access to capital and the role of credit access to labour and the impact of HIV/Aids entrepreneurial skills/quality control access to transport

Third, a projection of market evolution in the region will be prepared. The latter will include the following: projection of demand for irrigated produce (drawing on AT2030 analysis) impacts of expected policy shifts and institutional adaptation development of staple markets development of alternative, non-traditional export crop, markets macro trends in the sub-regional markets (possible SADC data) prospects for expansion of irrigated food commodities – sugar, rice, wheat prospects for expansion of supplementary irrigated food commodities - maize prospects for expansion of high value agrifloral and horticultural produce

Consultant Inputs and FAO Advisory ServicesIt is proposed that the desk and case studies would be carried out over as a series of discrete exercises by a core team of three consultants – an Commodities and Marketing Specialist, an Agricultural Economist and an Irrigation Specialist. Individual terms of reference for the

http://www.fao.org/farmingsystems/

http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/AGRICULT/AGL/agll/gaez/index.htm

study team will be prepared in accordance with standard FAO procedures in order to fulfil the study specification.

FAO advisory services will be drawn from the Agriculture Department and the Economic and Social Department to guide and contribute to the inputs of the consultant team.

ACTIVITIES

Collection of report and literature review Development of baseline Preparation of diagnostic

Development of projection

Case Studies - report writing Pooled data analysis and integrated report

Expert meeting

SYNERGIES WITH OTHER COMPONENTS

This component will provide information on country/sub-regional/regional/international trends on consumption and production for key crops and information on markets. Results of this study can feed into the planning component as well as the private sector study. The assessment of potential study can also use the information generated by this component to validate its base data used for simulation exercises.

OUTPUTS

The output from the proposed study would be a final report that comprises summaries of the baseline and diagnostic components and an elaboration of the projection. The final report will integrate case study material. Annexes for the baseline and diagnostic components will be presented as separate volumes.

ANNEX 6.1 GANTT CHARTTask# Description Key person(s) Oct -

03Nov-

03Dec-03

Jan-04

Feb-04

Mar-04

Apr-04

May-04

June-04

Jul-04

Oct-04

Dec-04

1Literature review, baseline, diagnostic, projection

1.1Collection of reports and literature review

FAO Consultants

1.2 Development of baseline

1.3 Preparation of diagnosticFAO Consultants

1.4 Development of Projection

2 Case studies

2.1 Write reports FAO Consultants

3 Component report

3.1 Pooled data analysis and integrated report

FAO Consultants/ Jake Burke

3.2 Write report

FAO Consultants/ Jake Burke

Milestone Component report –30/06/04

3 Expert Meeting

3.1 Presentaion of study report

FAO Consultant/Jake Burke

3.2

Contribute to overall Collaborative Program synthesis report

Jake Burke

MilestoneOverall synthesis report 31/12/04

N.B. The study will be carried out over a period of ten months. This would include a period of 4 weeks for collation of documentation, the literature review and desk studies; 4 weeks for region/country visits and provision for an expert group meeting to peer review the draft final report.

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ANNEX 6.2 FAO Irrigation Typologies

Area under agricultural water managementThis section considers all the land to which, in addition to eventual rainfall, water is added and managed to perform agriculture. The level of management and control of the water may vary greatly between the different agricultural water management types described under the variables. This section does not include “water harvesting”, which will be dealt with separately in Section IV.8. However, while sometimes spate irrigation is considered to be a type of water harvesting (called “floodwater harvesting”), Aquastat prefers including it in this present section, the reason for this being that spate irrigation often requires heavy structures to be built, using for example gabions or concrete.

The figures should refer to the physical area equipped. Thus, areas with double cropping are only counted once.

The classification adopted by Aquastat is presented the following diagram and an explanation of each of the variables is given below.

Note: Areas in grey are the variables that are disseminated in the new Aquastat database (not yet external), including the respective variable number.

4307 Irrigation potential (1000 ha)

Area of land which is potentially irrigable. Country/regional studies assess this value according to different methods, for example some consider only land resources suitable for irrigation, others consider land resources plus water availability, others include in their assessment economical aspects (such as distance and/or difference in elevation between the suitable land and the available water) or environmental aspects, etc. Details of the computation method should be included in the comments. In any case, the figure should include the area already under agricultural water management (variable 4317).

4308 Area equipped for irrigation: full control - surface (excl. equipped lowland areas (1000 ha)

Surface irrigation systems are based on the principle of moving water over the land by simple gravity in order to wet it, either partially or completely, before infiltrating. They can be subdivided into furrow, borderstrip and basin irrigation (including submersion irrigation of rice). Surface irrigation does not refer to method of transporting the water

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Area under agricultural water management (4317)

Area equipped for irrigation (4313) Area with other forms of agricultural water management

Area equipped for full control irrigation (4311)

Equipped lowlands (4312) Spate irrigation (4316)Non-equipped

flood recession (4314)Non-equipped cultivated wetlands and inland valley bottoms (4315)

Surface (4308)

Sprinkler (4309)

Localized (4310)

Equipped wetlands and inland valley bottoms

Equippedflood recession

Other

from the source up to the field, which may be done by gravity or by pumping. Manual irrigation using buckets or watering cans should be put here also.

4309 Area equipped for irrigation: full control - sprinkler (1000 ha)

A sprinkler irrigation system consists of a pipe network, through which water moves under pressure before being delivered to the crop via sprinkler nozzles. The system basically simulates rainfall in that water is applied through overhead spraying. Therefore, these systems are also known as overhead irrigation systems.

4310 Area equipped for irrigation: full control - localized (1000 ha)

Localized irrigation is a system where the water is distributed under low pressure through a piped network, in a pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small discharge to each plant or adjacent to it. There are three main categories: drip irrigation (where drip emitters are used to apply water slowly to the soil surface), spray or micro-sprinkler irrigation (where water is sprayed to the soil near individual plants or trees) and bubbler irrigation (where a small stream is applied to flood small basins or the soil adjacent to individual trees). To refer to localised irrigation, the following other terms are also sometimes used: micro-irrigation, trickle irrigation, daily flow irrigation, drop-irrigation, sip irrigation, diurnal irrigation.If you have detailed statistics per type of localized irrigation, please give them in the comments column.

4311 Area equipped for irrigation: full control - total (1000 ha)

This is the sum of surface irrigation (variable 4308), sprinkler irrigation (variable 4309) and localized irrigation (variable 4310).

4312 Area equipped for irrigation: lowland areas (1000 ha)

It includes:- Cultivated wetland and inland valley bottoms (IVB), which have been equipped with

water control structures for irrigation and drainage (intake, canals, etc.)- Areas along rivers where cultivation occurs making use of water from receding

floods and where structures have been built to retain the receding water- Developed mangroves

If separate figures for these three different categories are available, please put them in the comment column.

4316 Area equipped for irrigation: spate irrigation (1000 ha)

Spate irrigation can also be referred to as floodwater harvesting (Section IV.8). It is a method of random irrigation using the floodwaters of a normally dry water course or riverbed (wadi). These systems are in general characterized by a very large catchment upstream (200 ha - 50 km2) with a “catchment area : cultivated area” ratio of 100:1 to 10 000:1. There are two types of floodwater harvesting or spate irrigation: 1) floodwater harvesting within streambeds, where turbulent channel flow is collected and spread through the wadi in which the crops are planted; cross-wadi dams are constructed with stones, earth, or both, often reinforced with gabions; 2) floodwater diversion, where the floods - or spates - from the seasonal rivers are diverted into adjacent embanked fields for direct application. A stone or concrete structure raises the water level within the wadi to be diverted to the nearby cropping areas.

4313 Area equipped for irrigation: total (1000 ha)

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Area equipped to provide water to crops. It includes areas equipped for full control irrigation (variable 4311), equipped lowland areas (variable 4312), and areas equipped for spate irrigation (variable 4316). It does not include non-equipped cultivated wetlands and inland valley bottoms (variable 4315) or non-equipped flood recession cropping areas (variable 4314).As definitions and classifications on irrigation may vary between countries, please add any relevant comment in the comment column.

4318 Area equipped for irrigation: part actually irrigated (1000 ha)

Part of the area equipped for irrigation (variable 4313), which is actually irrigated, in a given year. Often, part of the equipped area is not irrigated for various reasons, such as lack of water, absence of farmers, land degradation, damage, organizational problems etc. It only refers to physical areas. Irrigated land that is cultivated twice a year is counted once. If figures on actually irrigated area are also available for each or some of the variables 4308, 4309, 4310, 4311, 4312, and 4316 please put them in the comments column.

4315 Non-equipped cultivated wetlands and inland valley bottoms (1000 ha)

Wetland and inland valley bottoms (IVB), which have not been equipped with water control structures but are used for cropping when covered with water. They are often found in Africa. They will have limited (mostly traditional) arrangements to regulate water and control drainage.

- In some countries, a distinction is made between the part of wetlands and IVB that are equipped and the part of the wetlands and IVB that are cultivated but are not considered equipped. In that case, put the figure relative to the first part in the category “equipped lowland areas” (variable 4312), and the figure relative to the second part in this category “non-equipped cultivated wetlands and inland valley bottoms” (variable 4315).

- In other countries, no distinction is made between the wetlands and IVB that are equipped and those that are not. In that case, put the total figure in this category: “non-equipped cultivated wetlands and inland valley bottoms” (variable 4315).

4314 Non-equipped flood recession cropping area (1000 ha)

Areas along rivers where cultivation occurs in the areas exposed as floods recedes and where nothing is undertaken to retain the receding water. The special case of floating rice is included in this category.

4317 Total area under agricultural water management (1000 ha)

It is the sum of total area equipped for irrigation (variable 4313) and areas with other forms of agricultural water management (variable 4315 + variable 4314).

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7. Assessment of Potential for Improving Agricultural Water Management in sub-Saharan Africa (IWMI)


Agriculture at present is the main livelihood of more than 80 percent of the poor people in sub-Saharan Africa. Agriculture, in the foreseeable future will also expect to play a major role in alleviating poverty and increasing food security of the rural poor. However, the responses to questions like how much water is required and what type of investments are required for meeting increasing needs of agriculture, domestic, industrial and environmental sectors in sub-Saharan Africa are still not clear. Rapidly increasing population in the region requires thorough assessment of the potential of the region to meet its food security under various water supply and demand scenarios.


The primary objective of this component is to study the alternative options for alleviating poverty and contributing to food and water security for the sub-Saharan African countries. Specifically the following concerns and opportunities will be examined through simulation exercises using the integrated global water-food model being developed by IWMI and IFPRI:

The potential contribution of rainfed agriculture in the food supply and water demand equation;

The options of regional and international trade and their impact on food security poverty alleviation in sub-Saharan Africa region; and

Implications on water and food policies, prices and also options of investments under different water supply and demand scenarios.

METHODOLOGY AND ACTIVITIES

The global model on water and food accounting-WATERSIM (Water, Agriculture, Technology Environment and Resources Simulation Model) being developed by IWMI and IFPRI will be used for addressing the specific objectives of the study. WATERSIM, covers 111 economic regions and 125 river basins of the world. of which 40 economic regions and 18 river basins cover the SSA region.

The food demand of 16 commodities for the economic regions is estimated as a function of population, per capita consumption and prices of a commodity and the prices of competing commodities. The crop production under rainfed and irrigation conditions and the livestock production for each region is also estimated. The production function (including yield and area functions) for each crop is expressed as a function of a combination of variables from crop prices, inputs prices, labour, technology, irrigation water, water availability, investments, climate, potential yield etc. Local commodity prices are determined by the world market prices and the assumption of market clearance at global level.

Water demands for the irrigation, domestic, industrial sectors, livestock and the environment are estimated at river basin scale. The irrigation requirement of a river basin is the aggregate of the irrigation demands of food production units which fall in a river basin. The choice of technology, management variables, efficiencies are part of the assessment of water demand. The water supply for each river basin is expressed as a function of climate, hydrology, existing infrastructure, water related investments.

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International trade connects food production regions. International and the regional prices of commodities are determined by balancing the global production and demand. The regional prices are then fed back into the demand functions which affect the food and water demand. The model will be used to develop alternative water and food supply and demand scenarios with specific policy options related to sub-Saharan Africa. The alternative scenarios will specifically look at the available options including investments in irrigated and rainfed agriculture, trade (regional and international) for food security and poverty alleviation in the sub-Saharan African countries.

SYNERGIES

This component has very clear linkages to several of the other components of the Collaborative Program, particularly the regional demand, health and environment, private sector participation, and planning and implementation studies. First, the baseline data and projections for food demand and supply for key crops in the region generated in the demand study will provide both data for calibration and validation of the model and, more importantly, guidance on relevant food and water options and policy experiments. In turn, results of the policy simulations on water and food interactions that will be carried out in the assessment of potential component taking into account physical conditions of basins, water supply and uses, prices, trade, and food consumption and production, will guide water development and management planning in national governments as well as among donors. The study will provide indicative impacts of specific types of investment and help identify those that are most promising and will lead to the most desired impacts. This component will be an “eye opener” for planning and implementation on the need for proper understanding, appreciation, and use of macroeconomic models (which go beyond purely engineering ones) for better and improved planning of projects in the context of an entire nation and the world economy.

The results of this exercise will also provide guidance regarding private sector participation and investments in water in agriculture just as indicative impacts of (potential) private sector contributions can be determined or simulated in this study. In addition, the model being developed in this study will already take into account the potential contribution and impact of a rapidly growing livestock sector on food and water requirements. The health and environmental impacts of water investments can also be captured and experiments conducted to determine policy options that will minimize adverse impacts and maximize expected benefits in terms of growth in production and incomes brought about by new investments. On the poverty study link, the model may also be able to contribute in terms of indicating directions of impact of specific investments on incomes and prices affecting the poor.

In terms of synergies with other on-going research projects at IWMI, this component will reinforce the findings of the IWMI-PODIUM project and will find good use for the data and information that will be generated in the global irrigated area mapping project.

OUTPUTS

This component will provide three alternative future scenarios of water supply and demand for SSA and their policy implications for different countries:

1. ‘Business as usual’ scenario, where present trends of investment in water-related development continue into the future;

2. More irrigation investment scenario, where increased investment than at present is expected; and

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3. A scenario of more rainfed yield and more trade between regions within SSA or more trade with regions outside the SSA.

All scenarios will give estimates of additional water requirements and the type of investments required for river basins or for economic regions. The policy implications of new investment scenarios for the different countries will be discussed. With additional funds, policy development workshops with WaterSim as a key tool can be held to develop scenarios and analyze their implications.

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ANNEX 7.1 – Logframe

INTERVENTION LOGIC OBJECTIVELY VERIFIABLE INDICATORS MEANS OF VERIFICATION ASSUMPTIONS

GOALTo identify investments strategies for agricultural water use to alleviate poverty and food insecurity of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)

Innovative strategies of investment in agricultural water use in SSA

Growth in agricultural GDP

Donor and government reports National and regional policy

documents National statistics

PURPOSETo explore following aspects using the integrated global water-food model being developed by IWMI and IFPRI.

The potential contribution of rainfed agriculture in the food supply and water demand equation

The options of regional and international trade and their impact on food security poverty alleviation in sub-Saharan Africa region

Implications on water and food policies, prices and also options of investments under different water supply and demand scenarios

Project guidelines and recommendations included in national and regional development plans and investment strategies

Final Project Report Reports and policy documents of

governments, regional organizations and donor agencies

Existence of an enabling environment conducive to investments in agricultural water use Investors willing to invest in good

projects Acceptable level of returns that

encourage and sustain investments

OUTPUTS1. Business as usual scenario of investment in

water resources, where present trends of investment in water related development continues in to the future,

2. More irrigation scenario, where increased investment is expted than at present, and

3. A scenario of more rain-fed yield and more trade between regions within SSA or more trade with regions outside the SSA

Project reports Peer-reviewed publications Presentations at national, regional

and international conferences Guidelines and recommendations

published in print and electronic formats

Project final reports and CD-ROMS

Journals Conference Proceedings Press Releases

Relevant agencies and groups willing to adopt project findings and implement project recommendations

Stakeholders interested in, and committed to project

ACTIVITIES4. Framework and model development 5. Data collection and analysis

Interim component outputs distributed to Working Group for

Project progress reports and working documents

Partners and stakeholders actively collaborate in project

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INTERVENTION LOGIC OBJECTIVELY VERIFIABLE INDICATORS MEANS OF VERIFICATION ASSUMPTIONS

6. Model implementation and scenario testing7. Synthesizing results

comment and feedback Outputs subject to peer

review/workshop consultation as appropriate

Workshop proceedings Project databases Work plans and budgets

Adequate data available Partners willing to share data and

information Invited participants able to attend

workshops Stakeholders provide relevant and

timely inputs to project implementation, and critical feedback on project findings

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ANNEX 7.2 GANTT CHARTTask# Description Key person(s) Jan-

04Feb-04

Mar-04

Apr-04

May-04

Jun-04

Jul-04

Aug-04

Sep-04

Oct-04

Nov-04

Dec-04

1 Model Development

1.1Model development and refinement

Mark Rosegrant (IFPRI) - UA & CdF (IWMI)

1.2Model calibration and completion of prototype model

IFPRI-IWMI

Milestone

Prototype model completion 31/01/04

2 Data collection 2.1 Data collection IFPRI-IWMI

3 Model testing and validation 3.1 Test runs IFPRI-IWMI 3.2 Initial scenario building IFPRI-IWMI

Milestone

Fully running and tested model 31/08/04

4 Determining and defining water & food options for SSA

4.1 Simulation exercises with various scenarios

IFPRI/UA/CdF

4.2 Write report (draft 30/09/04) IFPRI/UA/CdF Milestone Component report –30/10/04

5 Overall project synthesis 5.1 Contribute to overall synthesis UA/CdF

Milestone


UA - Dr. Upali Amarasinghe, IWMI-HQ, ColomboCdF - Dr. Charlotte de Fraiture, IWMI-HQ, Colombo

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8. Irrigation Cost Study in sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank and IWMI)


Understanding the issue of initial capital investment requirements is a key step in removing obstacles to irrigation development and achieving food security in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). High irrigation investment costs coupled with declining world prices for food and the failures of many past irrigation projects have made donors and governments in sub-Saharan Africa understandably reluctant to invest more resources in the sector. Evidence from Asia suggests that the decline in world rice prices and increasing real costs per hectare of new development contributed to the decline in lending for irrigation by international agencies (Rosegrant and Svendsen 1992; Aluwihare and Kikuchi 1991). In addition, high investment costs result in low rates of return for new irrigation construction (Kikuchi, Maruyama, Hayami 2003; Rosegrant and Svendsen 1992; Aluwihare and Kikuchi 1991) and diminished poverty reduction impact of investments.

Earlier reports on costs of irrigation focusing on sub-Saharan Africa includes FAO (1986) and van Steekelenburg and Zijlstra (1985) followed by a number of other assessments until the mid 1990s (Aviron, et al. 1991, Brown and Nooter 1992, World Bank Operation Evaluation Department 1994, several World Bank Technical Papers). These studies all reported high per hectare capital investment costs of irrigation in sub-Saharan Africa relative to north Africa and the rest of the world with only a few exceptions. A 1994 Review of the World Bank’s experience with irrigation between 1950 and 1993 suggested that irrigation investments in SSA averaged more than US$ 18,000 per ha, over 13 times the South Asian average. What is clear is that costly investments are unlikely to deliver positive economic returns – particularly if they are to be used for the production of food crops. Yet, FAO estimates that much of the future increase in the demand for food crops will have to be met from increased investment in irrigation or water management.

Various reforms have been implemented since the mid 1980s to early 1990s which include reducing government involvement while encouraging greater private sector participation in various phases of the irrigation project cycle, irrigation management transfer, partial to full cost recovery, and shifts of focus from large-scale, resettlement irrigation projects to small-scale, simple irrigation schemes. National level reforms include structural adjustment programs in the early 1990s implemented in many SSA countries (Brown and Nooter 1992, World Bank-OED 2000, Wobst 2001) as well as changes in institutions and even changes in (types of) governments. There are reasons to believe that some changes in the factors that determine and drive irrigation capital investments costs must have occurred in the span of almost two decades.

In addition, it is still not properly established whether costs in SSA are significantly more expensive than in other regions. A good understanding of components and factors contributing to costs would be instructive. A number of explanations on why investments in agricultural water development in SSA maybe more costly have been advanced. These factors have something to do with the relative quality of appraisal and feasibility studies, implementation capacity, use of inappropriate technologies and cost ineffective design (resulting in some cases from past policies of developing irrigation at any cost), possibly more limited competition among contractors, more focus on construction of new schemes rather than rehabilitation of existing infrastructure which is the case in Asia, and failure to

74

realize the potential of alternatives to conventional irrigation in water management. Other explanations have been offered which include: (a) higher proportion of investments allocated to appurtenant infrastructure; (b) higher mobilization costs due to more remote projects; and (c) higher construction input prices (including higher costs of labor, materials, and equipment; and lack of qualified local contractors) among others. Examination and resolution of these and other possible reasons is essential if water management investment costs are to be meaningfully reduced and more investments to be attracted to the sector in order to meet food production targets.


The specific objective of this study is to address the question of whether per hectare investment costs in irrigated agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa are really high and determine factors contributing to costs. And if indeed costs are high taking into account various considerations (typology of irrigation projects, crops irrigated, and expected benefits), identify ways and opportunities to reduce costs. The overall goal to which this study aims to contribute is to help reverse the declining interests of donors and national governments in irrigation development by reducing initial investment requirements for water development in SSA.

This component will examine major multilateral donor (World Bank, ADB, IFAD) funded projects and where possible also those funded by national governments and bilateral donors. Various types of projects from the 1980s to the present will be examined. Irrigation investment costs will be examined across various types: (1) type of headworks and distribution system (reservoir-based or run-of-the-river, gravity-fed or pumped-based); (2) water source (surface vs. groundwater); (3) new vs. rehabilitation project; (4) privately vs. publicly funded project; (5) whether implemented by public agency or private contractor; (6) inclusion of other physical and social infrastructure; and (7) type of crops (rice vs. non-rice – horticulture crops, other cereals, etc.).

METHODOLOGY

Relevant and comparable data need to be collected from past irrigation investments that would allow for testing of the above hypotheses. For example, a low number of bidders and high average mobilization costs would probably suggest a high percentage of foreign construction companies responsible for execution of works, and would thus support the hypothesis that lack of adequate local outfits underlies the high investment costs. To have more comparable data, project completion and evaluation reports as well as appraisal reports from various donors (World Bank, ADB and IFAD, where data will be available) will be used. Bills of quantities will also be used to allow comparison of unit prices of construction inputs. These data will be analyzed taking into account the crops that were irrigated, the project expected and realized benefits, and types of irrigation projects over time, within and across regions. Where data will be available, costs of operation and maintenance will also be included in the analysis.

The methodological steps are detailed below:

In consultation with the partners to this study, develop an analytical framework, set of specific research questions, working hypotheses and the respective data sets needed to either confirm or refute them that will guide the study. Consultants and peer reviewers will be used to finalize the proposed study framework. This step is considered to be important, as

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the common and agreed framework will enable more systematic comparison of cases and testing of hypotheses.

In consultation with the other partners, select specific investment cases for which there are reasonably good data available from ex-post facto evaluations, and analyze these cases in detail (using the analytical framework) to understand what has been the investment experience and the outcomes, and what are the reasons identified for these outcomes. A small sample of Asian cases will also be included for comparative purposes (drawing on work being done currently by IWMI under a “Pro-Poor Irrigation Investment Project” funded by the Asian Development Bank). Detailed financial and other performance assessment reports will need to be available for these cases. The cases may include both “successful” and “unsuccessful” projects. The study partners are expected to assist in identifying these cases and making material available to the researchers.

Encoding and analyses of data from various project reports and documents (completion, evaluation, appraisal, bill of quantities) will constitute the bulk of comparable data across regions and within SSA. Where possible interns and national research staff will be utilized to carry out the data encoding tasks and the study team with the help of some consultants will do the analyses. This part will come out with a project cost characterization and help establish general patterns and major components of costs over time, across projects, regions, and within SSA. In addition, this part will allow a comparison of input unit prices also across projects, countries, regions and over time. The case studies will then focus on providing a deeper understanding of the factors contributing to costs.

Where possible both quantitative and qualitative analyses will be applied to all data that will be collected. Specifically, the study will establish and link trends and patterns over time and by type to macro environment (macro policies and institutions, physical, socio-economic and political, and project level parameters); establish relevant correlations; and carry out quantitative analyses to determine impact on investment costs. The proximate variables in this study which are also influenced by the macro variables are the input prices and irrigation project outputs. The impact of these variables on investment costs shall be quantitatively determined where data would allow it.

The results of the overall analysis and the case studies will enable testing of the working hypotheses. This will also enable dismissing some of the hypotheses.

A draft report will be prepared setting out the results and preliminary recommendations. A workshop, either independently or together with the other Collaborative Program components, which will include representatives of the partners, specialists, and selected policy makers will be held to test, refine and expand the draft report into a final report.

Conceptual FrameworkFirst, we define capital costs of irrigation4 to include all expenses incurred in developing and establishing irrigation systems or perimeters beginning with design and planning up to

4 Irrigation is broadly defined using the FAO (1995) definition as any water management system that is equipped with hydraulic structures including wells, drainage, and flood protection. A full control system implies ability to apply or remove water from crops in optimum quantities as required by crops. This is distinguished from the broader concept of ‘water management’ which is defined as any kind of human action that influences the natural flow of water to farmers’ crops ad therefore includes irrigation, or any form of agriculture that takes advantage of naturally rising or falling water levels for crop production. Following these definition, IFAD (2000) infers that irrigated areas include: (1) fully or partially controlled systems including areas having only drains or flood protection structures; (2) traditional spate irrigation systems with partial control only; and (3) equipped wetland or valley bottom systems. IFAD defined “other” water managed areas to include traditional systems such as (1) wetlands and valley bottoms that are cultivated without irrigation equipment; (2) receding and advancing flood planting areas; and (3) inland and coastal swamps and flooded depressions.

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implementation and completion of the project just before the start of regular operation. Irrigation costs vary over time and space5. They vary by type of irrigation projects – type of headworks and distribution system and if with or without dam or reservoir, if the system works by gravity or pumped-fed; by water source - surface vs. groundwater; whether they are new or rehabilitation works; whether privately or publicly funded; whether construction is implemented by the private contractor or public agency, or mixed; and inclusion of various components such as training (of farmers/operators) and physical and social infrastructure such as roads, electricity, domestic water, health centers/clinics, and schools. To establish whether irrigation costs are high or not, there is a need for a reference point: (1) one would be a global or regional or sub-regional or even a country average or the average for other regions or sub-regions or countries; or (2) the other possible reference point would be some established or estimated “standard” cost for major types of irrigation investment. In this study, we will be mostly using the first type of comparison but where possible will attempt to do the second comparison.

The determinants of costs can be grouped into three classes: (1) macro policies and institutions, physical, and socio-economic and political factors constitute the setting in which projects are developed and implemented and which also influence input prices as well as the final output both indirectly and directly; (2) project parameters are those which are within the direct influence of the implementing agency and the donor funding the project and where consultants and contractors also play major roles and; and (3) the input prices and output of the irrigation project (type and size) which are more like the transmission mechanisms for the macro policies and institutions, physical, and the socio-economic and political factors to influence per hectare costs. Changes made at the macro environment through specific policy recommendations (and institutional innovations) will impact on project formulation, design, and implementation as well as on input prices, and final outputs. In turn, input prices and the irrigation project output parameters will impact on final per hectare cost of investment in SSA. These are further elaborated in Annex 8.4.

ACTIVITIES

Since the study has already completed the review of literature and a large part of World Bank project data entry and processing, it will proceed with collection and processing of other donor project data. Visits to the ADB and IFAD will be scheduled. With completion of data compilation, both qualitative/trend and/or quantitative analyses will be applied to the respective donor data and/or pooled data. With an FAO on-going study on irrigation costs, this component will examine the extent of consistency of the two datasets and possibility for pooling if not joint or enhanced data analyses.

Two ‘exploratory’ case studies for Kenya and Ghana have already been completed. Given budget, two or three more cases will be implemented in SSA. Two case studies in Asia will also be completed. This activities will involve finding good collaborators/consultants in chosen countries for the case studies. We are considering getting case studies for Tanzania and Niger depending on the final cases of the other components.

Following the completion of case studies, an integration of the main report and case studies will be done. This report will constitute a final report for integration with the other

5 Overtime, project components vary due to advances in technology, changes in project requirements to better respond to changing environment (e.g., incorporation of environmental impact assessment in projects with increasing awareness for worsening environmental damage), among others.

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components for the overall synthesis. A database of irrigation costs will be prepared for sharing with program partners.

Annexes 8.2 and 8.3 provide further information on the tasks and milestones.

SYNERGIES

This component will complement well and serve as an input into the other investment study components, i.e., planning and implementation, poverty reduction, health and environment, livestock, and the private sector study.

Better understanding of components and determinants of investment costs of water management and development will contribute to better planning and more cost effective projects. It may even allow analysis of tradeoffs between project costs and more effective planning and implementation if the latter may require greater participation and inputs by the various types of decisionmakers which can mean higher project costs. The especially close linkages to the Planning and Implementation study are clear.

This cost analysis may allow better targeting of the poor given knowledge of their resource base and what can work and not work for them. With reasonably cost effective projects, governments and donors may manage with a full capital contribution for the zero resource-based farmers if the investment will take them above the poverty line. So, this study will benefit from the poverty reduction component and vice versa. As suggested in the health and environment study, it will be interesting to examine the project cost implications of environmental impact and health impact assessments and how much costs are a constraint in including mitigation measures in a water development and management projects.

The findings of the cost study may contribute to formulation of better private sector incentives by the government which will include not only improved policies and institutions but even nominal investments to pump prime or mobilise private sector resources.

To bring about more synergies between the different components of the investment study, where possible, common projects will be selected and analysed in the case studies.

OUTPUTS

The outputs of the study will consist of the desk and case studies which will be synthesized into a main report on trends and determinants of costs of water development in SSA. A database on irrigation development costs will be prepared in a format which will facilitate use by the program partners. The main report will include: (a) establishing whether per hectare investment costs in water in agriculture in SSA are high; (b) factors contributing to costs or determinants of costs and reasons for high per hectare costs; (3) ways and opportunities to make investments more attractive by reducing per hectare investment costs.

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ANNEX 8.1. LogframeIntervention Logic Objectively Verifiable Indicators Means of Verification Assumptions

Overall Objective

To catalyze increased investment in agricultural water use for poverty reduction, food security, and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa.

Increased levels of investment in agricultural water use in SSA.

Annual reports by donors and governments.

National and regional policy documents.

National statistics

Immediate Objective

To is to address the question of whether per hectare investment costs in irrigated agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa are high, identify factors contributing to costs; and where costs are indeed high, identify ways and opportunities for reducing these costs.

Set of clear recommendations on ways to reduce costs and to help reverse declining donor interest in irrigation development and investment.

Final Report. Investors willing to invest in good projects. Water use for agriculture investments will give good returns. Cost-effective opportunities do exist.

Outputs

1. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of reasons for high cost per hectare of irrigation establishing whether costs are high & corresponding reasons

Studies and sub-studies completed. Periodic progress reports and Final Research Report

Data available for the analyses

2. Completed case projects in SSA (plus Asian cases analyses)

3. Concrete recommendations on specifically ways to reduce irrigation and make investments in irrigation in SSA more attractive

Governments will be responsive to recommendations made and strategies proposed.

4. Recommendations for any necessary follow-up research.

Funds will subsequently be available

Activities

8. Framework development and refinement Accepted study framework Study report Appropriate consultants can be commissioned.

9. Literature search and review Bibliography and citations Periodic reports and Final study report Adequate relevant material available. 10. Encoding & analyses of data from the World

Bank, IFAD, ADB11. Case studies and analyses

Tables and analyses

Contribution made/relevance to overall study

Study report

Final Study Report

World Bank, IFAD & ADB data can be made available.

Representative cases available. In-country commitment and cooperation.

12. Preparation of recommendations and strategy formulation

Implementable strategic guidelines Final Study Report Commitment to strategic thrusts

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ANNEX 8.2. Tasks and Staff Time Allocation

Task Subtask IWMI Staff and Time (d)


Output/Method/REMARKS

Links with project

1. Literature review

Collection of published and unpublished literature from IWMI and outside

AI HS DM

- establishing costs trends- a definition of irrigation investment costs - determinants of costsDraft report already submitted to WB and shared with some partners

Search for other similar and existing data sets on costs (AfDB, IFAD?)

AI 10 d Junior consultants $1k

Determination of comparability of data

- on-going FAO cost study

Development of framework of analysis

AIHSDM

Draft framework already submitted to WB and shared with some partners

Asian experience DM 1 dIH 1 dRXB 1 dMS 1 d

Consultant: MK- $5k

Draft report already submitted to WB and shared with some partners

Past, recent past IWMI studies for Sri Lanka and the Philippines by MK et al., IH, etc.

2. New knowledge -Establishment of trends of comparable costs per hectare by region by type of project-Project database on relevant parameters/variables

AI 10 d HS 5 dDM 2 d

Consultants: junior $2kMK

Additional case studies for SSA AI 15 dHS 5 d

Consultants for 2 case countries - $8k

Asian case studies DM 1dIH 0.5 dRXB 0.5 dMS 0.5 d

Consultants: NIA - $1k,MK

Compile case study data and add to overall database

AI 3 d Junior consultant - $1k

Case study reports Additions to database

3.Recommenda-tions to governments,

For public sector action&Facilitate donor response

AI 3 dHS 4.1 dDM 1 d

MK Final component report and contribution to synthesis report

Link with other investment study components

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investment banks IH 0.5 dRXB 0.5 dMS 0.5 d

4. Coordination Project coordination AI 2.4 d Final component report and contribution to synthesis report

Final WorkshopTotal

AI = Arlene Inocencio 43. 4 days HS = Hilmy Sally 14.1 days DM = Doug Merrey 5 days IH = Intizar Hussain 2 daysRXB = Randy Barker 2 daysMS = Madar Samad 2 days

_______ 68.5 days

MK = Masao Kikuchi $5k package (IWMI Fellow)

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ANNEX 8.3 Gantt ChartJan-04 Feb-04 Mar-04 Apr-04 May-04 Jun-04 Jul-04 Aug-04 Sep-04 Oct-04 Nov-04 Dec-04

Task Description Key person 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 121Inception AI

milestone Inception report

Review and feedback by WB & WG WB & partners

2Desk review AI/HS

milestone Desk review report

Integration of desk review with other components

Review and feedback by WB & WG WB & partners ?? ??

3Case studies AI

Add 2 more SSA case studies AI /HS/ Consultants Write Asia case studies report AI/ MK/ Consultants milestone Case studies report


4Cost Study component AI

Donor data analyses AI/HS/Junior consultant

Synthesis of results of Asia case studies

AI/MK/DM/IH/RXB/MS

Synthesis of results of SSA case studies

AI/HS/DM/ Consultants

Integration of all results AI/ HS/DM milestone Full component report


5Contribution to overall project synthesis AI/ HS/DM

milestone Draft synthesis report

Workshop with key stakeholders and WG

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Contribute to final synthesis report milestone Final synthesis report - milestones AI - Arlene Inocencio; HS - Hilmy Sally; DM - Doug Merrey; IH - Intizar Hussain; RXB - Randy Barker; MS - Madar Samad; MK –Masao Kikuchi

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ANNEX 8.4 More Details on the Cost Study Framework and Hypotheses

Study Framework

Macro EnvironmentPolicies and Institutions. Monetary and fiscal policies. Among the earlier reasons cited as contributing to high per hectare cost of investment are overvalued currencies as well as incorrect or over optimistic projections of inflations. Many African currencies are still overvalued despite the restructuring that was implemented in many of these countries in the early 1990s and overvalued currencies inflate all costs in dollar terms (Rosegrant and Perez 1995, World Bank-OED 2000). This factor may not be as relevant however, if we note that in the 1990s shadow pricing may have been applied to correct for this distortion. Drastic inflation on the other hand, has escalated costs of irrigation projects as input prices increase (Moris and Thom 1990; Rosegrant and Perez 1995). Taxes and tariffs on inputs have also been cited as contributing to higher prices. High import duties (taxes on imported inputs) especially in a setting where substantial irrigation inputs are imported for lack of local markets can substantially raise per hectare costs of irrigation establishment.

Several studies (FAO 1986, Aviron Violet, et al. 1991, Rosegrant and Perez 1995) noted the policy of using tied external funds to build irrigation and cover administration costs, which require use of ‘orphan’ technologies and/or the purchase of nonstandard equipment with special maintenance and spare parts needs, has escalated cost of irrigation investment.

Fiscal policies that have to do with expenditures such as procedures for procuring or hiring consultants or contractors can indirectly impact on per hectare costs of investment. Specifically cited in the literature is the use of foreign consulting firms which are at least twice as costly as local firms and can contribute about 2 to 4 percent more to the cost. Note however that governments and donor may even have the intention of providing opportunities for local or national consultants or contractors through use of price preference in international competitive biddings. The problem seems to be that local capacity, both technical and financial, remains low. Also, there may be reluctance of the governments/donors to use or support the private sector for it to become competitive. It appears that without partnering with their foreign counterparts, local private consultants or contractors just cannot compete.

Another concern related to use of foreign consulting firms is their tendency to install ‘superfluous’ design precautions and exaggerated safety measures in civil engineering to protect or maintain their reputation while irrigation agencies are technically incompetent to argue against the consulting firms’ views.6 Another weakness of foreign consultants is their lack of local experience to be able to take advantage of local and indigenous knowledge and materials which may reduce investment requirements for irrigation (Aviron Violet, et al 1991).

Government regulations such as labor and price regulations as well as safety and environmental regulations make private contractors wary or concerned on their nature, unpredictability of their implementation and consequent changes. Under this environment,

6 On the other hand, these “exaggerations” may only be satisfying government or donor demands or consultants are only carrying their terms of reference. One case cited by Peacock (2003, personal communication) is a project in Zimbabwe where the Ministry of Water always specified a maximum risk level (or risk of failure to meet the full project water requirements in any given year) of 4% for dams for irrigation purposes when the convention elsewhere is a maximum risk level of 20%. The latter would result in a lower storage requirement and therefore lower storage cost per hectare. On the other hand, there maybe an incentive for consultants to over design if their firm will also be involved in construction supervision & implementation where fees they will get will be directly proportional to the size of the project.

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contractors may put a premium over and above their “regular” price to cover for the uncertainty of costs of regulations and policy instability.

Projects had to carry heavy stocks because of the lack of local manufacture of (standardized) equipment and spares together with supply difficulties (FAO 1986, Aviron Violet, et al. 1991, Rosegrant and Perez 1995). This issue is especially relevant in projects in SSA where in most landlocked countries, a high inventory was common (Aviron Violet, et al. 1991). In addition, the lack of local equipment sales and service agents has implications on access and availability and can mean: (1) that there would be limited information on what is available, and (2) in case of breakdowns or need for repairs, neither spare parts nor immediate assistance can be expected resulting in further delays in project completion. While Brown and Nooter (1992) have cited that in the area around the Senegal River there is already a network of suppliers for motor-driven pumps which also provides after-sales services, in many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa this may not be the case. On the other hand, availability of some suppliers and sales services does not guarantee lower per hectare costs.7

The lack of capacity in the irrigation agencies to undertake or to manage the process of undertaking irrigation projects has been cited as a major reason for the high cost of irrigation. Particularly, the weak implementation capacity in the public sector and reluctance to use the private sector have been identified (FAO-IFAD 1998; IFAD 2000). For instance, the shortage and high cost of skilled local personnel such as mechanics and construction workers, and small contractors (e.g., earthworks) have been cited (FAO 1986, Moris and Thom 1987, Zalla 1987, Rosegrant and Perez 1995). The donors or financing agencies’ reported “demand” for use of expatriate design consultants, supervision and contractors due to the lack of local capacity in most countries in SSA has added to increasing the per unit cost of irrigation projects (FAO 1986, Aviron Violet, et al. 1991). An increase in skilled local engineers (in and outside of government) who are technically capable and competent and who can do design, supervision and evaluation of projects may not only reduce design expenses but also ensure more efficient and cost-effective project implementation.8

In the case of Sahel even in the early 1990s, a lot of the work was done by foreign companies mainly because there were no Sahelian firms with the needed capacity (FAO 1986, Aviron Violet, et al. 1991). Irrigation works done by government corporations or parastatals have been found to be disappointing.9 However, it has been noted (Aviron Violet, et al. 1991; Brown and Nooter 1992) that over the years African expertise is increasing with more consulting firms and professional associations being established and donors have been involving these consulting firms in studies that they fund. It will be interesting to see if this capacity has spread and grown in more countries in SSA both in terms of number and quality.

Many in and outside of government are convinced that the lack of a clear irrigation policy contributes to the weaknesses in project formulation and implementation (Muthee and Ndiritu 2003, and Agodzo and Gyiele 2003). For instance, setting of common design standards or provision or development of detailed manuals for irrigation schemes, or the establishment of a system of evaluating proposed projects would improve project development and

7 Peacock (2003, personal communication) cited the cases of Zimbabwe and Zambia where per hectare costs of public schemes appear to be high.8 For now, some may argue however that this condition does not apply or may not be true for government irrigation agencies. 9 One exception cited was the case of ONAHA in Niger (Aviron Violet, et al 1991).

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implementation and would cut short a lot of red tape once an operational system is put in place.

Physical factors. Some of the reasons cited as affecting irrigation costs relate to the physical characteristics of project sites which include unsuitable soil type and patchy irrigable soils, very intense rainfall/flooding needing flood protection dykes and cyclic droughts requiring high safety coefficient in project design, seasonality of river flows and greater need for storage, uneven shape and topography which require so much leveling, and the lack of shallow groundwater sources. For instance, the risk of flooding which may require the construction of dikes to protect schemes against flood would be an important consideration as this would have a significant impact on costs. Identified soil problems such as salinity, high sodium content, and low subsoil permeability have caused reductions in area to be irrigated (Lele and Subramanian 1990; Adams 1990, Moris and Thom 1987), which raises the effective per hectare cost of irrigation. When there is difficulty in physical/hydrological conditions, reservoir and dams had been needed to stabilize the erratic flows of many African rivers (FAO 1986 and 1987; Rosegrant and Perez 1995). In case of severe climate, high irrigation capacity and expensive flood protection had also been required.

Land-locked countries and remote project sites imply long distances for transporting inputs, more land clearing and need for access tracks, high mobilization costs and even settlements structures. The lack of physical infrastructure such as roads, domestic water, electricity, communication facilities, and local markets often characterizes remote areas. In addition, to make projects very attractive to potential beneficiaries, social infrastructure (schools, clinic/hospitals) has to be provided despite the relatively low expected population density. Irrigation projects in remote sites will require countries to incur large infrastructures costs as well as bear high transport costs for inputs and outputs to inland areas (Moris and Thom 1987, Rosegrant and Perez 1995). Aside from transport cost for material inputs, machines and equipment, there is also the travel costs for engineers and technicians (Aviron Violet, et al. 1991).

While highest costs (and poorest returns) were associated with major schemes in Sahelian and sub-Sahelian Africa, unit costs for schemes vary if the content and complexity of the schemes are taken into account (Horning, Mather and Underhill 1985). Because of the poor state of infrastructure and the remoteness of the projects, many of the past schemes had massive infrastructural costs which were not necessary in other more developed regions and therefore did not appear or were not accounted into project costs.

Socio-economic and political factors. Graft and corruption problems may be more relevant to public investments/projects than other projects. The large public irrigation infrastructure projects in the past must have provided incentives for the private contractors or consulting firms to pay “commissions” to secure contracts. In those cases, the approval of investment projects by corrupt public officials renders rates of return and cost-benefit analyses mere exercises. Private companies paying commissions often do not bear the cost of the bribe and will always recover this in some inefficient ways such as: (1) cutting project costs by adhering poorly to plan specifications or by using poor quality materials or workmanship; (2) getting an “understanding” with the bribed official that initial low estimate will be later revised upward; (3) padding initial bids; or (4) overpricing to cover for the bribe expense. All of these activities make public investment more costly and less likely to meet specifications (Everhart and Sumlinski 2001). While this problem may be an open secret in many African countries, apprehensions and persecutions are rare either because the people who are

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supposed to police and punish are part of the system, or the apprehending officers are way down the power ladder and would just be too afraid to put their superiors to jail. In many parts of Africa (Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, Benin, Mali, Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad and Congo, South Africa and Mauritius), corruption is the number one identified obstacle to efficiently and effectively implementing public infrastructure projects through private contractors (Brunetti, Kisunko and Weder 1997). In other countries (Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia), it ranks next to either tax regulations or inflation (Brunetti, Kisunko and Weder 1997). This is not saying that this problem is unique in Africa but there maybe reason to think that this may be a greater problem in the region given that in all regions surveyed more countries in Africa ranked it high among other concerns compared with the other regions. Political instability and civil disturbance can cause substantial delays as in the case of irrigation projects in Asia (ADB-PEO 1995). Interestingly, while we are aware of these problems in some African countries, there has been little mention of this problem even in the World Bank (1994) irrigation review. However, IFAD (1998) reports that in the case of the Wadi Development Project in Eritrea, costs per hectare did not seem high despite such problems.

The need for more stakeholder participation in projects may have substantial impact on investment costs. Level of participation of local farmers in the design process will also matter as more participation can mean longer project preparation and design process, and higher irrigation project development cost. However, more participation can result in more adapted technologies and greater opportunities to take into account indigenous and local knowledge minimizing chances of totally wrong designs and taking advantage of cheaper construction materials and inputs.

Project ParametersProject formulation and design. The lack of sufficient preliminary studies has been cited as contributing to poor design which in turn contribute to higher cost. A case in point was the digging of canals in very sandy soils and the consequent need for frequent maintenance (Aviron Violet, et al 1991).10 Also, the lack of a systematic planning and administration which includes poor surveys and inadequate preparation contribute to construction delays and costs overruns which in turn contribute to higher per hectare cost (Barghouti and Le Moigne 1990). Planning for irrigation development “tended to focus on achieving the most technically efficient system of water distribution on the project perimeter without taking into account the managerial and social factors which will determine whether this later leads to efficient agricultural production (FAO 1986).” Specifically cited was the tendency to construct “larger-than-necessary” dams and pumping stations which were intended to provide a wide safety margin.11 This tendency was perceived to reflect a lack of knowledge of local conditions by consulting firms carrying out the projects (Aviron Violet, et al. 1991).

Use of inappropriate technology involving highly mechanized construction techniques as well as energy intensive construction (requiring foreign exchange which in turn resulted in project delays), inadequate feasibility studies and faulty designs in addition to expensive expatriates

10 The example used was the Chari irrigation scheme in Guelendeng in Chad.11 On the other hand, the excessive design can be a mandate by the donor or a policy of a national government.

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can contribute to escalating per hectare irrigation cost (Agodzo and Gyiele 2003, Aviron Violet, et al 1991; Bunting 1987; FAO 1986).

Project Implementation. Several issues have been raised affecting implementation which may contribute to project costs. The lack of capacity by implementing agency has been cited in a number of past reports. This problem has led to the need to hire external supervisors or setting up of project management units which are headed by expatriates. Whether this factor has truly contributed to escalating per hectare costs in SSA relative to Asia is related to the bigger issue of perceived general lack of local capacity in SSA. There had been several programs established by various donors to address this problem and it should be interesting to see what is coming out from these efforts.

There are also the issues related to procurement, in addition to lack of markets for many of the inputs, which may affect implementation and project costs. For instance, the lack of competition in bidding in many past projects due to non availability of local capacity has been cited as an important factor driving up project costs. With fewer players, we can expect prices to be higher than when there are more players competing for design or construction contracts. While there is a price preference for local contractors in international competitive biddings, local contractors often just lack the technical and financial capability to truly compete and offer lower prices despite the adjustment.

Weaknesses in management of implementation and construction can result in variation orders (contributing to costs overruns) and time overruns. Cost overruns can be due to changes in design and scope, misallocation of materials and labor, and construction delays. Cost variation orders at the implementation stage by contractors occur because of unforeseen conditions or unknown characteristics of project site and then the inclusion of more works not in the original bid and account for the difference between the ex-ante and ex-post bill of quantities. Reasons for the variance can include poor design or planning, or a lot of unexpected things happening while works are on-going, e.g., one of the contractors in the World Bank Tanzania project discovered a subsurface oil pipeline when digging canals (de Jong 2002). On the other hand, it is possible that contractors sometimes may do everything to make sure that they are the lowest bidder and than spend time in justifying variation orders. These variation orders can then provide them with their margin.12 In some instances, ‘shrewd’ contractors may even try to find problems in the design (things that are grossly underestimated in terms of quantity), put in low unit prices for everything else and an extremely high unit price for the activity they think is underestimated, knowing that these unit prices need to be used for the necessary variation orders (de Jong 2002). They may lose on the overall work but may have a huge profit on that one variation order. Sometimes also, unit prices for variation orders may not be quoted in the original bid, and the contractor may then negotiate a "reasonable" rate with the engineer. There is plenty of scope for informal payment flows. The role of the project management unit especially the project engineer tasked with supervision or approving such requests for changes is critical in running a cost-effective project. Overall, a good project management is important to make sure project costs will not be bloated or are within contract provision.

Time overrun occurs due to counterpart funds shortage, procurement problems, problems with design preparation and changes both in scope and design, construction materials

12 From the World Bank standard bidding document, requests for acceleration of projects can also be part of variation orders.

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shortages, institutional deficiencies, problems with contractors, and land acquisition problems (World Bank 1994). An estimate (Aviron Violet, et al 1991) of construction delays for Africa projects shows that projects were delayed by up to 50% longer than expected while the World Bank-OED (1994) had an estimate of 55% per unit of project built.

Input Prices and Irrigation Project Output- the Proximate FactorsInput Prices. Differences in per hectare costs can be analyzed by looking at input prices. Input prices such as wages for different types of labor may include payments for local versus foreign consultants, and skilled versus unskilled labor, and design and supervision, among others. Wages may imbed factors such as lack of locally available servicing agents or trained manpower and lack of qualified local contractors in sub-Saharan Africa relative to other regions especially Asia. Prices for other inputs such as cement and steel, which are also important components in construction, may help explain the regional differences in average per hectare costs. FAO (1986) illustrated this point by showing figures comparing prices of a few African countries with an Asian country (FAO 1986). Prices of these major inputs appeared to be a lot higher in the selected African countries. Costs of capital which include interest rates and depreciation may or may not be substantial and can be captured in machine or equipment rental or purchase prices. For capital obtained through loans, this cost can be substantial given the relatively high interest rates in sub-Saharan Africa. However, funds for large schemes often come from major donors at concessions rates or as grants.

These input price parameters should be indicative of the input sources and availability. Specifically, material/equipment transport costs, which are also reflective of the remoteness of the sites, are assumed to be high for landlocked areas where input markets are practically nonexistent and inputs have to be often imported or smuggled from some sources. Given imperfect or non-existent local markets, adjustments have to be done to correct for distortions such as tariffs for imported inputs and other taxes to make prices comparable across countries and regions.

Irrigation Project Output. As observed in some sample World Bank-funded project or schemes where per hectare costs appeared to be high, the size of area irrigated was either really low even from planning stage or was much lower than planned at project completion. Factors that may drive final irrigation output include costs overruns or escalations which may then result in reduction of scope or coverage area, unanticipated technical problems (such as poor quality soils), among others. It should be interesting to find out if this problem is more common in sub-Saharan Africa projects than in other regions.

Study Hypotheses

From the discussion above, a wide range of factors has been identified to have some influence on per hectare costs. There are the macro environment factors some of which may still be valid and may contribute more to higher per hectare costs of investment. There are also the project level parameters and finally the construction input prices and irrigation output factors. In this study, we will focus our attention on the following factors:

mobilization costs to capture the “remoteness” of projects as well as the lack of basic infrastructure which in turn can also lead to higher non-core irrigation component costs in overall project costs;

weaknesses in project formulation and design brought about by lack of appropriate and reasonable amount of data and information, and lack of indigenous civil

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engineering capacity which can result in: (a) redoing of designs (faulty or incomplete initial design work leading to mid-course changes in concept of rebuilding of scheme works or technical failure- e.g., releveling of fields or the relocation of intake structures), (b) cost variation orders and time overruns (which can also imply inefficient and weak project monitoring/supervision), and (c) reductions in final irrigated area; use of capital intensive versus labor construction techniques;

use of more foreign consultants and contractors due to lack of local (technical and financial) capacity despite price preference in international competitive biddings; consultants’ rates can reflect the high economic opportunity cost of working in projects in SSA;

project implementation weaknesses – the lack or low level of implementing agency capacity for design and project monitoring, supervision and evaluation - e.g., this can be seen in the need to hire external supervisor especially for civil engineering aspects; issues concerning procurement procedures and transparency in procurement; and

input prices (including transport costs) – include wages for different types of labor, prices for material inputs, and rentals or purchases of equipment; can reflect the general lack of local markets for many (if not most) of the inputs; higher government input taxes and tariffs for imports.

These factors are hypothesized to be the major determinants of irrigation costs and will continue to influence costs of SSA irrigation or water management in agriculture in the short and medium term and recommendations which will address these concerns will lead to meaningful costs reductions.

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9. Study on Agricultural Water Development and Poverty Reduction in Eastern and Southern Africa (IFAD and

IWMI)13


Notwithstanding the perceptions of poor viability and sustainability referred to above, the experience of development to date has not been universally poor: the World Bank’s 1995 review of its irrigation portfolio world-wide found that more than two thirds of Bank-financed irrigation projects had reached satisfactory outcomes (Jones 1995). It also found that “the benefits of most irrigation investment have reached the poor”14. An earlier FAO Investment Centre study on irrigation in SSA found that “five out of six major Bank projects studied in detail had, by the end of disbursement, achieved or come close to many of their targets” (FAO 1986). IFAD’s 2000 review of its lending for agricultural water development in East and Southern Africa(IFAD 2000) found that its portfolio had generally responded well to objectives (although the review drew attention to the relatively complex technical nature of agricultural water interventions and consequent implementation problems).

However, it is clear that that there are issues to be addressed and constraints to be overcome if investments in agricultural water development are to achieve viability and sustainable poverty reduction. Many of the constraints could be institutional (taking institutions in the broad sense of policies, legal frameworks and organizations). For example, viability clearly depends on relative costs and benefits; but farm level costs can be influenced by subsidies and taxes (policy issues); and benefits could be largely determined by market access (partly influenced by policies, legal frameworks and organizations). There are technology constraints as well: while much of the future development of agricultural water is expected to be for food production (the basis of CAADP), it is increasingly difficult to justify the costs of conventional irrigation for such low value crops Lower cost alternatives to conventional irrigation must be identified.

Nevertheless, recent experience suggests that a number of innovative approaches have been successful in overcoming some of the institutional constraints. For example, smallholders in Swaziland have, on their own initiative, taken advantage of market linkages and spontaneously developed irrigation for sugar cane production. In Kenya, farmers have been able to use land title as collateral for borrowing commercial finance to successfully develop irrigation for horticultural export crops. Recent institutional change at the Office du Niger in Mali – an old established large-scale public rice irrigation scheme that has endured many cycles of rehabilitation-neglect-poor performance-rehabilitation in the past – has led to dramatic success. There have been technological successes as well: low cost water harvesting and soil moisture conservation techniques, as alternatives to conventional irrigation for food crop production, have enabled the poor to improve their access to water. Manual pumps have also enabled them to engage in micro-scale irrigation for higher value crops.

Yet the key ingredients for success and replicability are not widely understood. And little quantitative information is available regarding their poverty reduction impacts. However, if subsectoral investment for poverty reduction is to be revived, it will be necessary for us to improve our understanding of these factors and, from this, to learn lessons for the design of 13 This chapter is based on the agreed TOR.14 Although it must be noted that only 12% of total Bank lending for irrigation had been for Africa, and this is mostly in North Africa, the Sahel and Madagascar.

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new projects that will better achieve their objectives than those of the past. The proposed study will attempt to derive these lessons in the context of East and Southern Africa.


The overall objective of the proposed study is to catalyse increased investment in agricultural water development for poverty reduction in SSA. The immediate objectives are, however, to:

better understand the poverty reduction impacts of various types of agricultural water development in East and Southern Africa and to identify the most effective institutional approaches as well as technologies;

derive lessons for the design of future agricultural water development investments that better alleviate poverty than those of the past; and

on the basis of the knowledge gained, clearly articulate the case for increased investment in agricultural water development.

METHODOLOGY AND ACTIVITIES

The work will be carried out by means of a desk study together with a series of country visits and case studies on current or recently completed research and investment projects in which innovative institutional approaches and/or technologies have been successfully applied to reduce poverty. The desk study will consist of:

a review of IFAD’s East and Southern Africa Division portfolio of agricultural water development projects/components (including appraisal, supervision and evaluation reports) focusing on targeting approaches and intended/actual poverty reduction impacts;

a review of other relevant materials, such as the recent FAO-AGLW report on irrigation and poverty (Lipton et al. 2002) and documentation to be provided by ADB/World Bank on agricultural water development activities; and

a literature search and review on pro-poor technologies such as water harvesting/soil moisture conservation, as well as manual pumps, with a view to understanding the ‘state of the art’ – including costs, benefits and opportunities for application by farming system or agro-ecological zone.

The country visits and case studies will be used to augment the desk studies, by obtaining first hand information from the implementing agencies, their staff and farmers. The studies will ask the following broad questions:

i. What are the various types of interventions in agricultural water management that have been used to reduce poverty? (Physical interventions may have included conventional irrigation for the production of high value crops, or alternatives such as water harvesting. Other interventions may have included support to improving access to markets, or the development of market linkages. Yet others may have relied on NGO and private sector support services).

ii. In what ways, quantitatively and qualitatively, do the rural poor benefit from such interventions? (They may benefit directly through reduced vulnerability to drought, or as irrigators or wage labourers. They may, however, also benefit indirectly, e.g., as traders or other participants in an expanded local economy15).

15 An assessment of indirect benefits may be more qualitative than quantitative.

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iii. Who has benefited from such interventions (i.e., are they the poor relatively within local populations, or the absolute poor in terms of a global norm – implying a need to first assess how project designs have defined poverty and the target group, including their gender dimensions)?

iv. How cost effective have the interventions been, in terms of cost/ha, cost/beneficiary, cost/benefit ratio, reduced vulnerability to drought and/or increased incomes, compared with each other?

v. Which institutional and technological approaches/models have the greatest sustainable impacts on poverty and what are their common features?

vi. How effective have the institutions (including implementation arrangements) been in optimising the impact of investments? What have been the constraints and how have they been overcome? How could the successes be replicated?

The proposed case studies/country visits and the reasons for selecting these are as follows:

Madagascar Upper Mandrare Basin Development Project (PHBM). An irrigation rehabilitation project, mainly for rice production, which has been recognised as having been exceptionally well implemented. Of interest is an institutional framework that (a) makes effective use of contracted services from NGOs and private consulting groups for implementation activities as well as (b) ensuring that investment for the production of a relatively low value cash crop can be justified by the poverty reduction impacts.

Kenya Rural Enterprise Agri-Business Promotion Project (REAP). This is assisted by CARE and includes the Masaku Ndogo Irrigation Scheme. REAP is based on the development of market linkages for horticultural crop production and has high potential for poverty reduction through agricultural wage employment.

Tanzania Mara Region Farmers’ Initiative Project and Participatory Irrigation Development Program (MRFIP and PIDP). Both projects focus on innovative water harvesting technologies (mainly for rice production) and participatory development approaches.

Zimbabwe Smallholder Dry Areas Resource Management Project and South Eastern Dry Areas Project (SDARMP and SEDAP). Both projects feature innovative approaches to rainwater harvesting in dry areas, as well as the sustainable use of wetlands.

The above projects have all been IFAD-assisted (although IFAD’s assistance in the case of REAP has been limited to the provision of a small grant of ‘seed money’ for Masaku Ndogo) and have been selected not only because of their innovative features, but also for ease of access to project staff and documentation. The key aspects to be considered in each case will be impact and replicability.

During the country visits opportunities will also be taken to visit other relevant agricultural water development projects, for which mini case studies will be prepared highlighting their poverty reduction impacts and potential. These projects will include:

that concerned with treadle pump manufacture and distribution supported by Approtec in Kenya and Tanzania;

water harvesting research sites in northern Tanzania being operated by the Soil and Water Management Research Group of Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro;

an NGO-assisted market linkage project in Zimbabwe; and

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work towards soil moisture retention strategies by ICRISAT in Bulawayo.

Each of the country visits will be concluded by a one-day workshop at which the study team’s preliminary conclusions will be presented for consideration by, and feedback from, implementers and farmers.

Upon completion of desk and case studies the results will be synthesised into a Draft Report on Agricultural Water Development for Poverty Reduction in East and Southern Africa for presentation at two fora. The first forum will be a proposed workshop for the staff of IFAD-assisted projects in the East and Southern Africa region now, scheduled for March 2004 as a part of IFAD’s own ongoing agricultural water development knowledge management efforts. It is envisaged that this forum will provide an opportunity to obtain feedback on the preliminary findings and recommendations of the study team, thus adding value to not only the thematic study but to the overall collaborative effort as well. The second forum will be a wider regional stakeholder consultation to be held under the auspices of the overall Collaborative Program.

The Draft Report will present the results of the desk and case studies/country visits, and will provide a regional perspective on water development for poverty reduction, from which it will

clearly articulate the case for increased investment in the subsector, with fully developed recommendations on:

targeting approaches;

the best kinds of pro-poor assistance/interventions in agricultural water development, in terms of sustainable impact on poverty, including low-cost alternatives to conventional irrigation (related to farming systems and agro-ecological zones);

the best institutional approaches to agricultural water development (including implementation arrangements) to maximise poverty reduction impacts; and

what further study or research (if any) is necessary to refine or confirm these findings and recommendations.

It is proposed that the desk and case studies will be carried out over a period five months (up to and including preparation of the Draft Report) by a core team of three IFAD consultants – each of whom will have had wide experience in their respective fields in the design, implementation and evaluation of agricultural water investment projects in the East and Southern Africa Region, as follows:

Team Leader/Senior Water Management Specialist;

Water Management Specialist; and

Agronomist.

The team will split into two sub-teams for carrying out the case studies/country visits, when they will be joined by project staff and national consultants as required. A Senior Researcher from IWMI, Pretoria will complement the team by joining selected country visits to assess targeting and poverty reduction impacts16. Additionally, the team will be further supported by a senior consultant economist/institutions specialist who will guide the team in preparing its methodology for field work and internally review study outputs.

16 This input has been funded by IFAD as a part of its contribution to the Collaborative Program. IWMI will also be tapping the results of an ongoing project on irrigation and rural poverty in Asia.

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As mentioned, it is envisaged that this study will be augmented by further work to be funded by ADB/IWMI or the World Bank. These contributions involve additional case studies (including West African cases) and econometric studies to assess indirect poverty reduction impacts of investment in agricultural water development (see chapter 6). The work will be timed to follow that of the ‘IFAD team’ and the results will be available for incorporation into a Final Report on Agricultural Water Development for Poverty Reduction in Sub-Saharan Africa.

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SYNERGIES WITH OTHER COMPONENTS

Poverty is a cross-cutting issue throughout the project. Hence, the conceptual framework developed and refined in this component feeds into all components and the synthesis, and insights developed in other components, in particular the private sector component support the analysis here. The specific contribution of this poverty component is to analyze selected case studies explicitly and in-depth with regard to their efficacy and efficiency in alleviating human deprivation in rural areas, and simultaneously develop a rigorous generic conceptual and methodological basis for rapid poverty impact assessments. Please refer to Chapter 6 for further discussion.

OUTPUTS

The output from the proposed study will be a report that (a) analyses the poverty reduction impacts of agricultural water development projects/programs in SSA to date (including alternatives to conventional irrigation approaches for the production of low value food crops) and (b) provides recommendations on the best institutional approaches (including those related to implementation arrangements) and technologies for consideration in the design of future projects/programs.

The report will be part of the overall synthetic report for the Collaborative Program that will analyse the experience to date in terms of economic, financial, environmental, technical and institutional performance in the achievement of poverty reduction, food security and economic growth.

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ANNEX 9.1 Logframe


To contribute to the wider Collaborative Program on Investment in Agricultural Water Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, thereby supporting NEPAD by catalyzing increased investment in agricultural water development for poverty reduction in the region.

Actual and planned public and private sector investment, for East and Southern Africa and, ultimately Sub-Saharan Africa as a whole.

Sectoral strategies, five-year plans and government budgets

Government budget reports NEPAD reports Annual reports by financial

institutions (including those of private sector)

Government statistical reports FAO databases


On the basis of experience to date to:(d) better understand the poverty

reduction impacts of various types of agricultural water development in East & Southern Africa;

(e) identify the most effective institutional and technological approaches; and

(f) derive lessons for the design of future agricultural water investments that will better alleviate poverty than those of the past

Clear exposition of poverty reduction, food security and economic growth impacts of past investments.

Recommendations for ‘best practices’ presented and validated/endorsed by stakeholders.

Working Group reports to Steering Committee

Draft and final report outputs.

Validation by stakeholders

Better understanding of poverty reduction impacts, as well as knowledge of the most effective institutional and technological approaches will lead to better project designs and improved quality of investment projects, which will in turn lead to increased investment.

Case studies will be representative of Sub-Saharan Africa.

Wider study will be implemented to augment that proposed.

Outputs

Report on Agricultural Water Development for Poverty Reduction in East and Southern Africa – that (a) analyses the poverty reduction impacts to date of agricultural water development projects/programs in East & Southern Africa (including alternatives to conventional irrigation approaches for the production of low value food crops), (b) provides

Draft and final reports. Periodic progress reports from Working Group to Steering Committee.

Feedback from stakeholders

Appropriate study methodologies adopted.

Study reveals successes and concrete lessons that can be translated into specific recommendations.

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Intervention Logic Objectively Verifiable Indicators Means of Verification Assumptionsrecommendations on the best institutional approaches (including policies, organizations, legal frameworks and those related to implementation arrangements) and technologies for consideration in the design of future projects/programs and (c) contributes to the proposed wider study on Agricultural Water Development for Poverty Reduciton in SSA.

Activities

1. Literature review and desk studies on promising institutional and technological approaches for pro-poor agricultural water development in East and Southern Africa2. Case studies/mini case studies on current/recently completed IFAD-assisted and other investment and research projects.3. Validation/endorsement of results through:

in-country workshops/seminars during course of case studies; and regional workshop for implementaters of IFAD-assisted projects.

4. Dissemination of results.

In country and regional workshops/consultations held and comments received

Draft and final reports disseminated.

Peer review comments, stakeholder consultation proceedings

Progress reports to Working Group.

Studies will clearly demonstrate significant and sustainable poverty reduction impacts from investment in agricultural water development in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Successful experience is replicable in East & Southern Africa

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10. Agricultural Water Use from a River Basin Perspective in sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank)17


Sub-Saharan Africa presently has an estimated 5 million ha of irrigation (of which half is located in only two countries – Sudan and Madagascar). However, this area represents less than 15% of the physical potential and less than 5% of total arable land area. Moreover, the rate of new development is probably less than 1% per year.

Despite its potential and obvious under-development, water use for agriculture in SSA is under threat. It already uses around 80% of annual withdrawals from rivers and aquifers (i.e., 80% of what is available from development to date) and is regarded as an inefficient user. With intensifying competition for what is becoming a scarce resource there is strong pressure to reduce allocations to agriculture and to divert water to other sectors (urban, industrial, mining and environmental/tourism) that are thought to be more profitable. Mechanisms for demand management such as the establishment of user forums, introduction of volumetric water charges, and water regulation and legislation are being established. Agriculture is now expected to produce ‘more crop per drop’.

Yet, water abstractions for agriculture in SSA represent a mere 3 percent of overall annual discharge (FAO AQUASTAT 2003).. Much of the readily available water is concentrated spatially and temporally, suggesting that there is significant scope for approaches that address supply side constraints such as river regulation and storage creation, in addition to mechanisms for demand management.

Current efforts to manage water resources in an integrated fashion (IWRM) are based on the Dublin Principles that were adopted in 1992 as part of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Rio de Janeiro, 1992. They include:

Water and land resources should be managed at the lowest appropriate level.

Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, which is essential to sustain life, development and the environment.

Effective management should link land and water uses on an integrated catchment basis.

Water management and development should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners, and policy makers.

A number of African countries have pursued water sector reforms that are based on these principles. Although the Dublin principles advocate a balanced approach that includes both supply and demand management, many of the reforms have focused almost exclusively on demand management, with only scant attention is being paid to supply side constraints. One of the results of the emphasis on demand management is that those who are in a disadvantageous position to express their demands (smallholder farmers, pastoralists, environment) tend to become marginalized vis-à-vis larger institutional users (water utilities, hydropower generation), and risk losing out. Further, agricultural use of water is perceived as ‘low value’ and ‘wasteful,’ ignoring the importance of agriculture for the livelihoods of most rural Africans and the need to make water available to enable sustainable intensified agriculture.17 This component does not yet have an agreed TOR and is not financed. This chapter reflects some of the thinking to date but is by no means complete.

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It is felt that the current emphasis on demand management ignores a parallel need to improve water availability through river regulation, improved conveyance and storage capacity, and a more effective use of available resources for agriculture and other productive uses. The purpose of this study is to contribute to strengthening the role of IWRM in poverty reduction, food security and economic growth.


The higher, or overall objective of the proposed study is to contribute to catalysing increased investment – whether by governments/donors or the private sector (including farmers) – in agricultural water development in SSA. The immediate objective is to identify ways in which IWRM approaches can be made more inclusive in order to enhance their performance and impact in terms of poverty reduction, food security and sustainable economic growth. In so doing the study intends to contribute to efforts to translate investors’ and governments’ strategy towards rural development and agricultural growth into action, to upscale successful experiences, and to provide strategic guidance for the investors and their development partners (governments, other international financing institutions, bilateral donors and NGOs) in the design of new projects that have a better chance of contributing to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals.

METHODOLOGY

The work would be carried out by means of a desk study and a series of country visits and case studies into on-going efforts to improve water use through the adoption of IWRM approaches. The desk study would aim to identify what is understood by best practice in reducing poverty, improving food security and promoting growth through IWRM. Various methodologies for demand and supply management would be identified, and their potential impact would be analysed. This will be linked to an analysis of economic water scarcity. A number of river basins, both within and outside SSA, would be studied that represent best practice in terms of (i) extent to and way in which IWRM approaches balance demand and supply management, (ii) extent to and way in which poverty reduction, food security and sustainable economic growth are being achieved, (iii) the way in which concerns are being addressed related to the involvement of the more vulnerable stakeholders. Country visits and case studies would provide more detailed information, and would focus on the effectiveness of the implemented measures in terms of involvement of various stakeholders, impact on water allocation among sectors and the way in which environmental concerns are being addressed.

The country visits/case studies would focus on known successes and innovations, as determined by the desk study (the selection to be made in consultation with the Working Group for the Collaborative Program) and would ask the following broad questions:

What are the various types of demand and supply management interventions in IWRM that can be identified? In what way do they contribute to poverty reduction, food security and economic growth, or to achieving the Millennium Development Goals? Which of these interventions contribut most, and which contribute least, to achieving poverty reduction, food security and economic growth?

In the selected basins, what kind of specific demand and supply management interventions were implemented? And what is the situation in terms of economic water scarcity?

In what way and to what extent have all stakeholders been involved, and what can we say about how effective this involvement was? How did the outcome of

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improved management benefit the rural poor? What are the most effective institutional and policy mechanisms for improving benefits for poor people?

What can we say about the correlation between economic water scarcity, demand management interventions and supply management measures?

What are the major practical lessons for implementing IWRM in a way that effectively contributes to poverty reduction, food security and sustainable economic growth?

OUTPUTS

Upon completion of desk and case studies the results will be synthesised into a Draft Report on the impact of IWRM on poverty reduction, food security and economic growth in SSA. The Draft Report will provide a regional perspective and reasoned conclusions and recommendations on:

What specific demand and supply management interventions are efficient and cost effective tools to reduce poverty, increase food security and promote sustainable economic growth.

How basin and catchment management institutions can be made more effective in terms of involvement of the more vulnerable water users.

How the situation in basins with respect to water scarcity can be linked to specific measures that aim to reduce poverty, increase food security and promote sustainable economic growth.

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APPENDIX 3: CONSOLIDATED REFERENCES

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CONSOLIDATED REFERENCES18

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Aviron Violet, J., B.D. Ido, A. Soumaila, P.N.G. van Steekelenburg, A. Waldstein. 1991. “The Development of Irrigated Farming in the Sahel: Irrigation Policy Limitations and Farmer Strategies: Synthesis report,” Wageningen, Netherlands: International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI).

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18 These references are for Appendices 1 and 2.

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______________ and Mark Svendsen. 1992. “Irrigation Investment and Management Policy for Asian Food Production Growth in the 1990s,” Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute.

Sally, H. and C. Abernethy (Eds.). 2002. Private Irrigation in sub-Saharan Africa. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and ACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation.

Shah, T., B. van Koppen, D. Merrey, M. de Lange, & M. Samad. 2002. Institutional alternatives in African smallholder irrigation: Lessons from international experience with irrigation management transfer. IWMI Research Report 60. Colombo, Sri Lanka: IWMI.

Thornton, P.K., Kruska, R.L., Henninger, N., Kristjanson, P.M., Reid, R.S. Atieno, F., Odero, A.N. and Ndegwa, T. 2002. Mapping poverty and livestock in the developing world. ILRI, Nairobi.

Wobst, P. 2001. “Structural Adjustment and Intersectoral Shifts in Tanzania: A Computable General Equilibrium Analysis,” IFPRI Research Report 117. Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute. (March).

World Bank. 1996. Performance Monitoring Indicators. A Handbook for Task Managers. Ed. by the Operation and Policy Department.

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http://www.ifpri.org/pressrel/2003/20031201.htm

__________- Operation Evaluation Department (World Bank-OED). 1994. “A Review of World Bank Experience in Irrigation,” Report No. 13676, Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

________ – OED. 2000. “World Bank Assistance to CFA Countries: An Evaluation of Selected Social, Economic and Regional Aspects of the Bank’s Performance,” Report No. 21394, Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

_________-OED. 2002. Review of Impact Evaluation Methodologies Used By The Operation Evaluation Department Over Past 25 Years.

_________ - Private Sector Development and Economics Division (PSDED).1993. “Putting the Private Sector on Track,” Findings Africa Region, No. 9 (December).

Zalla, T.M. 1987. “Chapter 8: Irrigation Project Economics,” In J.R. Moris and D. J. Thom. African Irrigation Overview: Main Report. WMS Report 37. (December).

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APPENDI 4. THE COLLOBORATIVE PROGRAM

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Investment in Agricultural Water Management in sub-Saharan Africa: Diagnosis os Trends and Opportunities

1. Background

Agriculture is the most important sector of the economy for many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, contributing an average of 30% of total gross domestic product and accounting for 67% of employment in the region. Roughly 80% of the region’s poor live in rural areas and are dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods. The population of the region is expected to increase by close to 3% annually to over one billion in 2025. Meanwhile, the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA) estimates that, to keep up with this increase and achieve food security by 2015, agricultural production must increase at an annual rate of 6%.

Clearly then, substantial new investment in agriculture is needed to meet targets for poverty alleviation and food security. Meanwhile, FAO estimates that about 75% of the growth in crop production in Sub-Saharan Africa required by 2030 will have to come from intensification in the form of yield increases (62%) and higher cropping intensities (13%), with the remaining 25% coming from arable land expansion19. Since irrigation and other forms of agricultural water management is the key to intensification, it is also clear that much of the required new investment must be in agricultural water development.

Yet, lending for irrigation in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has declined considerably over the past two decades (Figure 1)20. There are thought to be various reasons for this decline, but the common denominator is the disappointing performance of development to date in terms of sustainability and returns on investment. Moreover, the decline in irrigation lending has been matched by declining farm-gate prices for food crops – further depressing returns to investment in agricultural water. That the decline in investment has continued for more than 20 years indicates that the sector has been slow to respond and adapt to change. However, if the decline in investment is to be turned around, innovative approaches to agricultural water development are now required.

With the above in mind, five international organizations (ADB, FAO, IFAD, IWMI and World Bank) have joined forces in a program intended to diagnose the causes for current trends and identify new opportunities for investment in sustainable, cost-effective agricultural water development in Sub-Saharan Africa. The program aims to (a) identify changes in the current global development context related to agricultural water development; (b) identify innovative approaches and technologies for agricultural water use, including water harvesting and water conservation, as well as issues related to institutional and capacity building; and (c) propose better approaches to future agricultural water use development in the region than those of the past, both in terms of implementation and lending. It is hoped that the program will contribute to improving the ability of governments to develop appropriate investment strategies for agricultural water use and to catalyse increased investment.

19

? FAO. 2000. Agriculture: Towards 2015/30. Technical Interim Report. Rome.

20 Although Figure 1 reflects worldwide data, the situation in sub-Saharan Africa is no more encouraging.

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Figure 1

Decline of food-prices, reduced economic return

Robert L. Thompson WB, ICID (Seoul 2001)

In doing so, the program will directly support the recently launched New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), which has agriculture as one of its sectoral priorities and which identifies the need for initiatives in agricultural water development under its respective infrastructure, water and agriculture sub-programs.

2. The Harare Workshop

As a first step, a workshop on Agricultural Water Use was organized in Harare, Zimbabwe, from 13-16 June 2001. The objective of the workshop was to discuss and draft a strategy paper on Agricultural Water Use in Sub-Saharan Africa. The workshop brought together over 30 participants from a wide variety of countries and backgrounds, including ministry staff, NGOs, research institutes, universities, and the private sector. In addition, the workshop saw strong representation from international organizations, including ADB, IFAD, IWMI, FAO and the World Bank.

The Harare workshop identified a number of strategic issues concerning agricultural water use that needed consideration. These, somewhat modified after further consultations, included:

the demand for products of irrigated agriculture; approaches to irrigation development planning and implementation; private sector investment in agricultural water development; agricultural water use from a river basin perspective; agricultural water development for poverty reduction; costs of agricultural water use development; health and environmental aspects; and the actual physical potential for improved agricultural water use.

It was agreed that analysis of the above issues would dissect the overall question that the program aims to address, i.e., how to improve the performance of investments in agricultural

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water use and thereby catalyse further investment in this sector in Sub-Saharan Africa. Guidance will be sought from NEPAD to finalize the above list of issues. As a next step, the workshop acknowledged the need to review experience and to summarize the lessons learned in respect of each of the above issues, as well as to identify gaps in knowledge and understanding that currently impede the widespread dissemination and operationalisation of these lessons.

Workshop participants were emphatic that what was required now were radical new approaches to investment in agricultural water use, rather than continuing as before. However, in view of the many current and past initiatives in the Africa region, participants did not feel that there was a need to develop further pilot exercises or to carry out new research. Rather, existing information should be compiled and reviewed, and the need for any further studies identified on the basis of gaps that then become apparent.

3. Objectives and Purpose of the Program

The immediate objective of the program is to identify opportunities for innovative investment in sustainable, cost-effective agricultural water management. It is anticipated that this will catalyse more coherent donor interest in the sector. The specific purpose of the program is to contribute to a better understanding of experience and lessons learned from investment over the past two decades, the trends and future development scenarios, as well as the constraints and realistic opportunities for overcoming them. This will be achieved through compilation and critical review of existing literature, as well as limited research in the thematic issues.

The program is intended to add value to the NEPAD process, for which FAO has been requested to support formulation of the agriculture sector program in cooperation with South Africa’s National Department of Agriculture (with IWMI providing support through its Pretoria office), while the African Development Bank has been charged with the formulation of the infrastructure sector program including water. The ADB is collaborating with the World Bank and European Union in developing the sector program.

4. Program Scope

The program will not limit its review to irrigation investments in the conventional sense. Rather, it will use a broad definition of the subject: in addition to irrigation it will consider the opportunities for improving the productivity of rainfed agriculture through better water management, including both indigenous and modern techniques.

The program will tentatively include (but not be limited to) the following eight sub-studies:

i. Regional Demand for Products of Irrigated Agriculture, jointly financed by the World Bank and FAO and implemented by the latter.

ii. Irrigation Development Planning and Implementation Processes, financed by ADB and implemented by IWMI in collaboration with ADB.

iii. Constraints and Opportunities for Private Sector Investment in Agricultural Water Development, financed by ADB and implemented by IWMI in collaboration with ADB.

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iv. Agricultural Water Use from a Basin Perspective, jointly financed by the World Bank and IWMI and implemented by the latter.

v. Agricultural Water Development for Poverty Reduction, financed and implemented by IFAD in collaboration with IWMI.

vi. Costs of Agricultural Water Development, financed by the World Bank and implemented by IWMI in collaboration with the World Bank.

vii. Health and Environmental Aspects, financed by ADB and implemented by IWMI in collaboration with the ADB.

viii. Potential for Improved Agricultural Water Use, jointly financed by ?? and IWMI and implemented by IWMI.

Each of these proposed studies is described in more detail in the Appendix to this document. At this time, no firm budgetary commitments can be made, but individual work plans and budgets will be developed and approved before work begins. The program will also draw on other current work being undertaken by the participating institutions on related issues, including:

the potential for sustainable groundwater exploitation for increased food production;

the potential for sustainable exploitation of wetlands for agriculture; and the likely contribution of urban and peri-urban agriculture.

FAO has also suggested a sub-study on gender-sensitive design. The program is to be flexible for considering this and other relevant studies that may be incorporated with the concurrence of the collaborating institutions as the work progresses. The substance, financing and implementation arrangements of the final program will be subject to discussion with NEPAD.

5. Implementation Arrangements

A high-level Steering Committee, a Working Group and a Program Coordinator will be appointed to guide the implementation of the various studies. The Steering Committee will provide overall strategic direction, to review the various draft reports that will be produced, including the overall main report. It is proposed that the committee will include representatives of the each of the collaborating institutions, plus representative of NEPAD, nominees from participants in the Harare workshop, as well as a representative of other key stakeholders. Interested bilateral donors may also be invited to participate.

The Working Group will be responsible for overall technical guidance and quality assurance for the program and will consist of nominated representatives of the collaborating institutions. Key decisions (such as selection of specific cases and identification of indicators) and the detailed terms of reference for the various component studies will be submitted to the Working Group for review and concurrence. The Program Coordinator, to be provided by the World Bank, will be responsible for facilitating communications with, and meetings of, the Working Group and Steering Committee – acting as Secretary to the latter. The Coordinator will also be responsible for management of time and resources.

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Most of program activities will be implemented through direct contracting by the designated implementing institution of regional experts having demonstrated experience and competence in the fields that are relevant for the particular components of the program. IWMI also proposes to use selected senior staff to work directly on some issues, but in close cooperation with the regional experts. The program will thereby both maximize the use of African expertise, and through partnerships with senior international specialists, contribute to further strengthening this expertise.

Workshops will be held for each of the individual component studies, focused on the issues with which the respective studies are concerned, to facilitate stakeholder participation and, thereby, to enhance the quality of the work. In addition, two larger workshops are proposed for the overall program. The first of these will consider the outputs from each of the component studies as well as an outline of the overall report. The workshop will be built around the Steering Committee, participants in the June 2001 Harare workshop, and other selected regional professionals. The second workshop, in addition to members of the Steering Committee, will also include other high-level African professionals and policy makers, to review and, with suitable amendments, formally adopt the strategy paper. The final output will be jointly endorsed by the respective collaborating institutions, as well as the NEPAD Secretariat, after internal review.

6. Outputs

For each of the component studies listed above, a report will be prepared that presents reasoned conclusions and recommendations. These reports will constitute the building blocks for the overall main report, which will synthesize the lessons, conclusions and recommendations and present a diagnosis of the current trends and opportunities for innovative investment in sustainable, cost-effective agricultural water development in Sub-Saharan Africa. It will also highlight areas needing further study and specify the additional resources required. It will further include:

a bibliography on innovative practices in agricultural water use; recommendations for further detailed studies on aspects that have not been

sufficiently analysed in the existing literature; and a list of organizations, especially in Africa, capable of conducting these and other

studies.

7. Budget and Timing

Subject to detailed budgeting and final approval of the detailed terms of reference and work plans for the individual studies, the total cost is estimated at US$ 1.235 million. The proposed indicative financing plan is as follows:

US$ADB 470 000FAO 170 000IFAD 120 000IWMI 125 000World Bank 275 000Total (US$) 1 235 000

A more detailed breakdown is provided in the table below. The work will commence by 1 January 2003 and be completed within 12 months. A detailed implementation schedule will be discussed with NEPAD.

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Table: Estimated Program Costs and Proposed Financing

Task Level of effort Rate Estimated cost (US$)

Proposed Financing

1. Regional Demand for Products of Irrigated Agriculture

To be decided Sum 100 000 FAO 50%World Bank 50%

2. Irrigation Development Planning and Implementation Processes

To be decided Sum 200 000 ADB

3. Constraints and Opportunities for Private Sector Investment in Agricultural Water Development

4 PM for lit. review4 PM for field investigations of specific cases

$15 000/pm including local costs

120 000 ADB

4. Agricultural Water Use from a Basin Perspective/a

2 PM for lit. review

Special study through partners

$15 000/pm including local costs$120,000 estimate

150 000 IWMI 50%WB 50%

5. Agricultural. Water Development for Poverty Reduction/b


$15 000/pm including local costs

120 000 IFAD

6. Costs of Agricultural. Water Development/c

Sum $150 000 World Bank-trust funds

7. Health and Environmental Aspects


$15 000 pm 120 000 ADB

8. Potential for Increasing Productivity through Improved Agricultural Water Use.

2 PM plus regional institution contract

Sum 100 000 IWMI and ??

Steering Committee Honoraria, travel, meeting costs

Sum 30 000 ADB

Stakeholder Workshops

Two – for consultation with stakeholders and to review/endorse final report

$60 000 each 120 000 FAO

Coordination Costs ( Senior staff time Sum

TOTAL 1 235 000a/ IWMI has initiated the first stage of this work as part of its 2002 Work Plan using its own funds. b/ IFAD has prepared a detailed proposal for this work.c/ IWMI has submitted a proposal that is expected to be funded by the World Bank using French trust funds.

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Membership of the Steering Committee and Working Group, and

Program Coordinator

Steering Committe Members Working Group Members

Professor Richard MkandawireAgriculture AdviserNEPAD

Mr. Kpourou Janvier LitseManagerOperations Policies and Procedures DivisionAfrican Development Bank

Mr. Tefera WoudenehPrincipal Water Resource Management OfficerAfrican Development Bank

Mr. Jake BurkeSenior Water Policy OfficerWater Resources, Development and Management ServiceFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Mr. Jake BurkeSenior Water Policy OfficerWater Resources, Development and Management ServiceFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Mr. Edward HeinemannRegional EconomistAfrica II DivisionInternational Fund for Agricultural Development

Mr. Tony PeacockWater Management/Irrigation SpecialistConsultantInternational Fund for Agricultural Development

Mr. Douglas MerreyDirector Africa Regional OfficeInternational Water Management Institute

Ms. Arlene InocencioEconomistAfrica Regional OfficeInternational Water Management Institute

Mr. Salah DarghouthSenior Water Advisor for Agriculture and Rural DevelopmentWorld Bank

Mr. Ijsbrand de JongSenior Water Resources SpecialistRural Development Operations, Eastern and Southern AfricaWorld Bank

Designated Program Coordinator: Mr. Ijsbrand de Jong, World Bank

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APPENDIX 5. CVS OF KEY IWMI STAFF MEMBERS

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STAFF SPECIALIZATION

Dr. Upali Amarasinghe StatisticianDr. Felix Amerasinghe EntomologistDr. Eline Boelee Health and Irrigation SpecialistDr. Olufunke Cofie Soil ScientistDr. Charlotte de Fraiture Water Resources Management SpecialistDr. Pay Drechsel Environmental and Soil ScientistDr. Arlene Inocencio EconomistDr. Abdul Kamara Agricultural EconomistDr. Matthew McCartney HydrologistDr. Douglas Merrey AnthropologistDr. Sylvie Morardet-Fabre Agricultural EconomistDr. Clifford Mutero EntomologistDr. Don Peden System EcologistDr. Frits Penning de Vries Production EcologistDr. Hilmy Sally Irrigation EngineerMr. Jetrick Seshoka Agricultural EconomistDr. Barbara van Koppen Poverty, Gender and Water Management

Specialist

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CURRICULUM VITAE

Name Upali AmarasingheFirst name UpaliYear of birth 1959Nationality Sri Lankan

Key Qualifications

Upali Amarasinghe has 11 years experience working as a statistician in an international agricultural research organization. While contributing as a statistician to various projects, he has conducted research on various issues ranging from impact assessment of interventions in irrigation systems, evaluating system performance using remote sensing data, issues on water supply demand at national, regional and global level, and on issues of water and rural development and water for food security. In 1999 he was involved in developing the water food background document for the world Water Vision. He was a member of the team which developed PODIUM, Policy Dialogue Model, an interactive model studying issues on food demand and production to water supply and demand. He was also a member of the team which produced the background document, Water for Rural Development to the World Bank. Most recently he was involved in preparing background paper for a chapter, on “Water for Food Security”, in the World Development Report. Currently he is a member of the team on Global Food and Water modelling of the International water Management Institute and International Food Policy Research Institute and the project leader of IWMI/IFPRI component of the ICID project “Country Policy Support Studies”, the component Research and Analytical tools in water, food and environment of IWMI-IPTRID partnership and the project leader of the Sri Lankan component of the CSI/FAO/GRID poverty mapping project.Upali Amarasinghe joined IWMI in 1992 as a data analyst, was promoted to a Statistician in 1996. In 2001, he was promoted to a Senior Regional Researcher.

Education1982 B.Sc. (Honours), Mathematics, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka1986 M.Sc., Statistics, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, U.S.A1991 PhD, Statistics, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, U.S.A

Positions Held2001-date Senior Regional Researcher, International Water Management Institute, CGIAR

Research Centre with headquarters in Colombo, Sri Lanka.1992-2001 Research Data Analyst/Statistician, International Water Management Institute, CGIAR

Research Centre with headquarters in Colombo, Sri Lanka1991-1992 Senior Lecturer, Department of Statistics and Computer Science, University of Colombo,

Sri Lanka1986-1991 Teaching assistant , University of Illinois Urbana Champaign, Illinois, USA1984-1986 Teaching Assistant, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, USA

Foreign Travel:USA: 1984-1991, MSc and PhD studiesUSA: 2000-2001, Global modelling activities (two months) Netherlands: Workshop on World Water Vision activities (one week)UK: Attended expert workshop on PODIUM modelling (one week)Pakistan: Advised field data collection/analyzing in Lahore field office (2 months)Malaysia: Advised filed data collection/analyzing in Muda Irrigation system (2 months, 1995)India: Conducted training workshops on PODIUM modelling (several short term assignments, 2001,2002, 2003)China: PODIUM modelling activities (2 weeks, 2003)South Africa: Conducted training workshop on PODIUM modelling activities (2 weeks, 2002)

Selected PublicationsPeer reviewed ArticlesAmarasinghe, U.A., Randy Barker, Noel Aloysius 2003, Spatial Variation of Water Supply and Demand across

the River Basins of India, IWMI Research paper (forthcoming).Amarasinghe, U.A., Dongphen Zhu and Liao Yongsong, 2003, Spatial Variation of Water Supply and Demand

across the River Basins of China, IWMI Research paper (forthcoming).

Water ManagementInternationalInstitute

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Hussain, I., R. Sakthivadivel, Upali Amarasinghe, Muhammad Mudasser and David Molden 2003, Land and Water Productivity of Wheat in the Western Indo-Gangetic Plains of India and Pakistan, IWMI Research Report 65, Colombo, Sri Lanka: IWMI.

Fraiture, C. de, D, Molden, U. Amarasinghe and I. Makin. 2001. PODIUM: projecting global water supply and demand for food production in 2025. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth (B. Hydrology Oceans and Atmosphere) 26(11/12): 869-876

Barker, R., C Scott, C de Fraiture and U Amarasinghe. 2000. Global water shortages and the challenge facing Mexico. International Journal of Water Resources Development 15(1/2): 161-179.

De Fraiture, C., Molden , D., Amarasinghe, U.A., Makin, I., 2000. Podium: Projecting water supply and demand for food production in 2025. Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol.2:

Baker, R. David Seckler, Upali A. Amarasinghe 2000. The world's water: Emerging issues in an era of growing scarcity. Choices (Special Millennium Issue),

Sakthivadivel, R., Amarasinghe, U.A., Tiruvengadachari, S., 2000. Evaluation of watercourse lining efficiency using remote sensing techniques. Colombo, Sri Lanka: IWMI. (IWMI Research report no.46)

Sakthivadivel, R., Thiruvendadachari, S. Amarasinghe, U.A 1999. Modernization using the structured system design of the Bhadra Reservoir Project, India: An intervention analysis. Colombo, Sri Lanka: IWMI. v, 24p. (IWMI research report 33)

Amarasinghe, Upali A., Lal Mutuwatta, R. Sakthivadivel, 1999, Water Scarcity Variations within a Country: a Case Study of Sri Lanka. Colombo Sri Lanka: IWMI (IWMI research report 32)

Seckler, D., Randy Barker, Upali A. Amarasinghe 1999. Water scarcity in the twenty-first century. International Journal of Water Resources Development. 15(1/2):29-42.

Hammond Murray-Rust, R. Sakthivadivel, Upali A. Amarasinghe, 1999, Impact Assessment of Organizing Farmers in the Gal Oya Left Bank. International Journal of Water Resources Development. 15(1/2):197-217

Sakthivadivel, R., S. Thiruvengadachari, Upali A. Amarasinghe 1999. Modernization using the structured system design of the Bhadra Reservoir Project India: An Intervention Analysis, Colombo Sri Lanka: IWMI (Research Report 33)

Sakthivadivel, R., S. Thiruvengadachari, Upali. A. Amarasinghe, W.G. Bastiaanssen and David Molden. 1999. Performance Evaluation of the Bhakra Irrigation System, India, Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques, Colombo, Sri Lanka, (Research Report 28)

Seckler D., Upali. A. Amarasinghe, D. Molden, R.De Silva, Randy Baker, 1998. World water demand and supply 1990 to 2025: Scenarios and Issues. Colombo, Sri Lanka: IWMI (Research Report 19)

Amarasinghe, Upali A., R. Sakthivadivel, Hammond Murray-Rust, 1998, Impact Assessment of Rehabilitation Intervention in the Gal Oya Left Bank, Colombo, Sri Lanka: IWMI (Research Report 18)

Bhatia Ramesh, Amarasinghe U. A., Imubulana K.A.U.S., 1995, Productivity and Profitability of Paddy Production in the Muda Scheme, Malaysia, Water Resources Development.

Other ArticlesUpali Amarasinghe 2003, Growth of Crop Productivity: Quantifying Contributory Factors, Draft Research ReportMolden, D. Upali. A. Amarasinghe, Madushan Bhattari, Jinxia Wang and Ian Makin, 2001 Water and Food

Security, Background paper for the World Development Report, Comprehensive Assessment Research Paper 02, Colombo, Sri LAnka: IWMI

Molden, D., Upali A. Amarasinghe, Intizar Hussain 2001, Water for Rural Development. Background paper on water for rural development, prepared for the World bank (not published)

Seckler , D., Amarsinghe, U.A., 2000. Water supply and demand, 1995 to 2025. In IWMI, Annual report 1999-2000. Colombo, Sri Lanka: IWMI. pp.9-17.

Amarasinghe, Upali A. and J. Bandaragoda, 2000, Food Security through Water Security: A case of South Asia: Paper presented at the 4th Annual Sustainable Conference on Discourses on Human Security, May 24-26, 2000 Islambad, Pakistan.

Amarasinghe, Upali A., Lal Mutuwatta, R. Sakthivadivel, 2000. Water supply and demand in Sri Lanka: Differences at district level. In Samad, M.; Wijesekera, N. T. S.; Birch, A. (Eds.) Status and Future Direction of Water Research in Sri Lanka: Proceedings of the National Conference held at the BMICH, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 4-6 November 1998. Colombo, Sri Lanka: IWMI. pp.11-27 .

Amarasinghe, Upali A., and Hilmy Sally, 1999, Water scarcities in Sri Lanka and implications for integrated water resources management. In Abeywickrema, N.; Sally, H.; Kurukulasuriya, P., National Consultation on Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM). Colombo, Sri Lanka: Lanka International Forum on Environment and Sustainable Development. Water Resources Unit (LIFE-WRU) 11p.

Seckler, D., Upali A. Amarasinghe, R. de Silva, R. Barker 1998. Water and water resources in global perspective: An informative introduction. Economic Review, 23(12):3-6.

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CURRICULUM VITAE (Summary)

Name : F.P. AMERASINGHEFirst Name : FELIXYear of Birth : 1948Nationality : SRI LANKA

Key Qualifications & Experience

Felix Amerasinghe has 30 years of experience as a university teacher, administrator and research scientist specialising primarily in the field of Medical Entomology, but also with an interest in the field of Biodiversity and Ecology. He has experience as a researcher in Sri Lanka, England and the United States of America. He has carried out short-term consultancies in countries such as the Philippines, Pakistan, Thailand and India. Felix Amerasinghe has experience in teaching both undergraduate and graduate courses at universities in Sri Lanka, and has been a visiting associate professor in the United States of America. His major research has been in the field of mosquito taxonomy, ecology and the epidemiology of mosquito-borne diseases, with a particular emphasis on disease problems in irrigation systems in the south Asian region. He is a member or fellow of several professional associations in Sri Lanka and other countries. He has served as the Head of a University Department, and has held membership and chairmanship of committees and councils in several Sri Lankan professional associations and national institutes. He was a member of the joint WHO/FAO/UNEP/UNCHS Panel of Experts on Environmental Management for Vector Control from 1988-98, has served regularly as a temporary advisor for the World Health Organisation (WHO) and, more recently, for the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), and as a member of an international working group on a WHO/UNEP-commissioned project on Biodiversity and Human Health. He is a Fellow of the National Academy of Sciences of Sri Lanka. Felix joined the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), a CGIAR-supported research institute headquartered in Colombo, Sri Lanka, as a full-time consultant in September 1999. He was appointed to the position of Theme Leader, Water Health and Environment Theme of IWMI in August 2001 where he oversees the global research program related to this Theme.

Education1971 B.Sc. (First Class Honours), Zoology, University of Ceylon, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.1977 Ph.D. Zoology, University of Bristol, UK.

Positions Held2001-date Principal Researcher and Leader, Water Health & Environment Theme, International

Water Management Institute, CGIAR Research Center with headquarters in Colombo, Sri Lanka.

1996-2000 Professor of Applied Zoology, Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. Head of Department, 1998-1999.

1994-1996 Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.1992-1994 Senior Lecturer, Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.1990-1992 Visiting Associate Professor, Department of Entomology, University of Maryland,

College Park, USA.1989-1990 Associate Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.1983-1989 Senior Lecturer, Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.1977-1983 Lecturer, Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.1972 – 1983 Assistant Lecturer, Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

Present Work Address: International Water Management Institute (IWMI), P.O. Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka. (Telephone: 94-1-787404; Fax: 94-1-786854; Email: [email protected])

Publications: Research Papers 80, Published Abstracts 40, Book 01.

Selected Publications (from last 7 years):1. KONRADSEN F, P. AMERASINGHE, W VAN DER HOEK, F. AMERASINGHE, D. PERERA,

M PIYARATNE. 2003. Strong association between house characteristics and malaria vectors in Sri Lanka. American Journal of Tropical medicine and Hygiene 68(2): 177-181.

2. AMERASINGHE, F.P., M. MUKHTAR & N. HERREL. 2002. Keys to the anopheline mosqutoes (Diptera: Culicidae) of Pakistan. Journal of Medical Entomology 39: 28-35


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3. KONRADSEN, F., P.H. AMERASINGHE, D. PERERA, W. VAN DER HOEK & F.P. AMERASINGHE. 2000. A village treatment center for malaria control: community response in Sri Lanka. Social Science & Medicine 50: 879-889.

4. AMERASINGHE, P.H. & F.P. AMERASINGHE. 1999. Multiple feeding in a field population of Anopheles culicifacies and Anopheles subpictus in Sri Lanka. Medical & Veterinary Entomology 13: 124-131.

5. KONRADSEN, F., P. STEELE, D. PERERA, W. VAN DER HOEK, P.H. AMERASINGHE & F.P.AMERASINGHE. 1999. Cost of malaria control in Sri Lanka. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 77: 301-309.

6. MATSUNO, Y., F. KONRADSEN, M. TASUMI, W. VAN DER HOEK, F.P. AMERASINGHE & P.H. AMERASINGHE. 1999. Control of malaria mosquito breeding through irrigation water management. Water Resources Development 15: 93-105.

7. AMERASINGHE, P.H., F.P. AMERASINGHE, F. KONRADSEN, K.T. FONSEKA & R.A. WIRTZ. 1999. Malaria vectors in a traditional dry zone village in Sri Lanka. American Journal of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene, 60: 421-429.

8. DE SILVA, A.M., W.P.J. DITTUS, P.H. AMERASINGHE, F.P. AMERASINGHE & R. RICO-HESSE. 1999. Serological evidence for an epizootic dengue virus infecting toque macaques at Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka. American Journal of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene 60: 300-306.

9. KONRADSEN, F., Y. MATSUNO, F.P. AMERASINGHE, P.H. AMERASINGHE & W. VAN DER HOEK. 1998. Anopheles culicifacies breeding in Sri Lanka and options for control through water management. Acta Tropica 71: 131-138.

10. RANAWANA, K.B., C.N.B. BAMBARADENIYA, T.D. BOGAHAWATTA & F.P. AMERASINGHE. 1998. A preliminary survey of the food habits of the Sri Lankan leopard (Panthera pardus fusca) in the montane region of Sri Lanka. Ceylon Journal of Science (Biological Science 25: 65-71.

11. VAN DER HOEK, W., F. KONRADSEN, D. DIJKSTRA, F.P. AMERASINGHE & P.H. AMERASINGHE. 1998. Risk factors for malaria: a microepidemiological study in a village in Sri Lanka. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene 92: 265-269.

12. AMERASINGHE, F.P., F. KONRADSEN, K.T. FONSEKA & P.H. AMERASINGHE. 1997. Anopheline (Diptera: Culicidae) breeding in a traditional tank-based village ecosystem in north central Sri Lanka. Journal of Medical Entomology 34(3): 290-297.

13. KONRADSEN, F., W. van der HOEK, P.H. AMERASINGHE, F.P. AMERASINGHE & K.T. FONSEKA. 1997. Household responses to malaria and their costs: a study from rural Sri Lanka. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene 91: 127-130.

14. KONRADSEN, F., W. van der HOEK, P.H. AMERASINGHE & F.P. AMERASINGHE. 1997. Measuring the economic cost of malaria to households in Sri Lanka. American Journal of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene 56(6): 656-660.

(Note: Full CV available on request)

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CURRICULUM VITAE (short version January 2004)

Name : BOELEEFirst name : Eline Year of birth : 1966Nationality : Netherlands

Key Qualifications

Eline Boelee has 12 years experience as an inter-disciplinary researcher in different aspects of irrigation and health, such as health impacts of irrigation design and management, ecology and environmental control of water-related diseases in irrigation systems and multiple use of irrigation water. She lived and worked in Morocco and Sri Lanka and currently operates from Ethiopia. In addition, Eline has working experience in Mozambique, Azerbaijan, Senegal, Egypt, Portugal and Côte d’Ivoire.Eline Boelee works as a researcher under the Water, Health and Environment theme since September 1999. Since October 2002 she is Deputy Coordinator of the CGIAR System-wide Initiative on Malaria and Agriculture. She successfully led two research projects in Sri Lanka: environmental control of Anopheles mosquitoes in a natural stream serving as a canal in the Huruluwewa watershed, and agro-ecosystem management for human health in Uda Walawe. At the moment Dr. Boelee coordinates a study on health, environmental and socio-economic impacts of small dams in Morocco, Ethiopia and Zimbabwe, with a special focus on malaria in Tigray, northern Ethiopia. She is project leader of a research project on the impact of irrigation development on rural poverty and the environment in Awash, Ethiopia. In addition, she studies multiple use of irrigation water in Zebra, Morocco and co-authors a comprehensive overview on irrigation and ecology of schistosomiasis in Africa. Eline is a good team worker with experience in international multidisciplinary teams, who is fluent in Dutch, English, French and to a lesser extent in German and Portuguese.

Education2000 Ph.D. Wageningen University, the Netherlands. Thesis title: Irrigation ecology of

schistosomiasis: environmental control options in Morocco.1996 Short course (two months) Low cost drinking water supply and sanitation, IHE Delft, the

Netherlands.1992 M.Sc. Tropical Rural Engineering, Wageningen Agricultural University. Majors: ecology

of malaria mosquitoes and water rights in farmer managed irrigation systems.

Professional ExperienceSeptember 1999 – present

Researcher on irrigation and health, International Water Management Institute, CGIAR Research Centre with headquarters in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Since November 2003 posted at the sub-regional office for the Nile Basin and Eastern Africa.

July 1997 – August 1999

Ph.D. Student, Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands. Thesis write-up and occasional lectures for the Irrigation and Water Engineering Group.

July & August 1998

Guest lecturer, IHE International Institute for Infrastructure, Hydraulics and Environment, Delft, the Netherlands. Supervision and guidance of group work of international MSc students on planning of urban water supply and sanitation.

November 1997 – April 1999

Assistant-Researcher, Career Services of the Royal Agricultural Society, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Social-economical research on career perspectives of Dutch agricultural engineers, data analysis and extension through publications and presentations.

January 1994 – June 1997

Scientific researcher, Leiden University, the Netherlands in the EU-funded project “Environmental control of schistosomiasis in modern irrigation systems”. Preparatory phase (Sep’93-Jun’94): proposal development, preliminary visit, elaboration of work plan, practical preparations. Residence phase in Morocco (Jul’94-Oct’95): design and implementation of research activities situated in Morocco. Monitoring phase (Nov’95–Jun’97): analysis of research results, design of interventions, supervision of implementation activities, evaluation, financial reporting. Coordination with counter parts in Morocco and Egypt.

June 1993 – May 1994

Staff member, Tito de Alencar Foundation, Nijmegen, the Netherlands. Evaluation of proposals and acquisition of funds for small-scale development projects in North-Eastern Brazil.

December 1992 – April 1993

Junior staff member, Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands. Supervision of student working groups


129

Selected papers

Konradsen F, van der Hoek W, Amerasinghe FP, Mutero C, Boelee E (in press) Engineering and malaria control: learning from the past 100 years. Acta Tropica 89 (2).

Boelee E & Laamrani H (in press) Multiple use of irrigation water in Northeastern Morocco. In: Moriarty P, Butterworth JA, van Koppen B (eds). Beyond domestic: Case studies on poverty and productive uses of water at the household level. IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, Delft, The Netherlands

Boelee E, Laamrani H, van der Hoek W (in press) Usage multiple de l’eau d’irrigation en zones arides d’Afrique et d’Asie du Sud. In: Parent G (ed) Hydro-aménagements et évolution socio-sanitaire. IRD, Editions Karthala.

Shortt R, Boelee E, Matsuno Y, Faubert G, Madramootoo C, van der Hoek W (2003) Evaluation of thermotolerant coliforms and salinity in the four available water sources of an irrigated region of Southern Sri Lanka. Irrigation and Drainage 52: 133-146

Boelee E (2003) Malaria in irrigated agriculture (Paludisme et l’agriculture irriguée). Irrigation and Drainage 52: 65-69.

Boelee E (2003) Water and health in irrigated agriculture. In: McCornick PG, Kamara AB, Girma Tadesse (eds) Integrated water and land management research and capacity building priorities for Ethiopia. Proceedings of a MoWR/ EARO/ IWMI/ ILRI international workshop held at ILRI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2–4 December 2002. Pp. 121-129. International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Colombo, Sri Lanka, and International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Nairobi, Kenya. 267 pp.

Van der Hoek W, Boelee E, Konradsen F (2002) Irrigation, domestic water supply and human health. In Water and Development: some selected aspects, edited by Marquette CM, Pettersen S, in Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers, Oxford, UK, [http://www.eolss.net]

Stanzel P, Öze A, Smakhtin V, Boelee E, Droogers P (2002) Simulating impacts of irrigation on the hydrology of the Karagan lagoon in Sri Lanka. IWMI Working Paper 44, International Water Management Institute, Colombo.

Laamrani H & Boelee E (2002) Rôle des paramètres de conception, de gestion et de maintenance des périmètres irrigués dans la transmission et la lutte contre la bilharziose au Maroc central. Cahiers Agricultures 11: 23-29.

Boelee E & van der Hoek W (2002) Impact of irrigation on drinking water availability in Sri Lanka / Impact de l’irrigation sur la disponibilité de l’eau potable au Sri Lanka. ICID-CIID 18th Congress on Irrigation and Drainage, 21-28 July, Montreal, Canada. Q. 51, R. 5.04. International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage.

Van der Hoek W, Amerasinghe F, Boelee E (2001) Water management for malaria control. Economic Review 27 (8&9) : 14.

Harmancıoğlu N, Alpaslan N, Boelee E (2001) Irrigation, health and the environment: a review of literature from Turkey. IWMI Working Paper 6, International Water Management Institute, Colombo.

Laamrani H, Madsen H, Boelee E (2001) Snail control in Africa: Towards a community-based environmental control. In: Madsen H, Appleton CC, Chimbari M (editors) Proceedings of “Workshop on Medical and Veterinary Malacology in Africa”, Harare, Zimbabwe, November 8-12, 1999, Harare, Zimbabwe. Pp 183-192, Danish Bilharziasis Laboratory, Charlottenlund.

Laamrani H, Khallaayoune K, Boelee E, Laghroubi MM, Madsen H, Gryseels B (2000) Evaluation of environmental methods to control snails in an irrigation system in Central Morocco. Tropical Medicine and International Health 5 (8): 545-552.

Laamrani H, Khallaayoune K, Laghroubi M, Abdelafid T, Boelee E, Watts SJ, Gryseels B (2000) Domestic use of irrigation water: the Metfia in Central Morocco. Water International 25 (3): 410-418.

Boelee E, Laamrani H, Khallaayoune K, Watts S (1999) Domestic water use in Morocco’s Tessaout Amont irrigation system. Waterlines 18 (1): 21-23.

Tiemersma EW, Hafid S, Boelee E, Khallaayoune K, Gryseels B (1997) Detection of urinary schistosomiasis in a low prevalence region. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 91: 285-286.

130

CURRICULUM VITAE

Name : O.O. COFIEFirst Name : Olufunke Maiden Name: EpebinuYear of Birth : 1966Nationality : Nigeria

Key Qualifications

Olufunke Cofie has been working on various aspects of soil resource management - land management soil fertility, organic matter and nutrient dynamics since 1990. As a research associate at the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), she developed analytical methods for field evaluation of soil fertility and participated in process research on soil organic matter dynamics in tropical agriculture. As a university lecturer in Nigeria and Ghana, she gained a lot of experience in training and supervision of projects at both undergraduate and post-graduate levels. She also served on many academic boards and university committees where she acquired administrative skills. After her PhD exam in 2000, she joined the International Board for Soil Research and Management as post-doctoral scientist and worked on municipal waste recycling for urban agriculture with particular responsibility of linking and supervising project activities in three West African cities. Currently at IWMI, she is a research scientist posted at the West Africa sub-regional office. She is participating in several projects within the Water Health and Environment as well as the Smallholder Land and Water research themes. In addition, she leads research activities on co-composting of municipal solid and liquid waste for peri-urban agriculture. She is an active team player.

Education1987 B. Agriculture University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Nigeria1989 M.Sc. Agronomy University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria 2000 Ph.D Soil Science Federal University of Technology Akure, Nigeria/International Institute

of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Language SkillsWritten Spoken

Yoruba (mother tongue)

Excellent Excellent

English Excellent Fluent French Fair Basic

Professional ExperienceSept 2002 – Oct 2000 – July 2002April 2001 – Aug 2002

Regional Researcher, international Water Management Institute, West Africa OfficePart-time lecturer, Faculty of Agric. Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, GhanaPost doctoral scientist, International Water Management Institute, IWMI (CGIAR), Ghana-office

2000- 2001 Post doctoral scientist, IBSRAM Regional office for Africa, Ghana.1994-1996 Research Associate, Resource and Crop Management Division, International Institute of

Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan Nigeria (on leave from the university)1990 – 1998 Lecturer at the Federal University of Technology, Akure Nigeria

131

PublicationsCofie, O.O. and G. Kranjac-Berisavljevic. The use of human waste for peri-urban agriculture in northern Ghana.

Paper submitted to American Journal of Alternative Agriculture

Cofie, O.O. and P. Drechsel. Water for Food in the Cities: The Growing Paradigm of Irrigated (Peri)-Urban Agriculture and its Struggle in Sub-Saharan Africa. Submitted to Africa Water Journal.

Cofie, O.O., O. Kadeba, K. Oorts and B. Vanlauwe. Effect of soil type on surface charge characteristics of soil organic matter fractions in southern Nigeria. Submitted to Soil and Tillage Research.

Cofie O.O and O. Kadeba. Carbon and nitrogen distribution in size fractions of a degraded soil under different management practices. Submitted to Land Degradation and Development.

Cofie, O.O. and J. Pleysier. (2003). Ion exchange involving Ca-K and Ca-Mg in soil and organic matter fractions. Communications in Soil & Plant Analysis. Forthcoming

Agbottah, S. Cofie, O., H.Esseku, and A. Montangero. Use of drying bed for faecal sludge pre-treatment in a co-ocmposting plant. Submitted to Ecological Engineering.

Cofie, O., Drechsel, P., Obuobie, E. Danso, G and B. Keraita (2003) Environmental Sanitation and Urban agriculture in Ghana. Paper presented at 29th WEDC (Water, Engineering and Development Center) Proceedings, 29th WEDC International Conference: 87-90

Mensah A., Cofie, O. and A. Montangero. (2003). Lessons from a pilot co-composting plant in Kumasi, Ghana. Proceedings, 29th WEDC International Conference

Drechsel, P., B. Keraita, P. Amoah and O. Cofie. 2003. Assessment of health risks from urban wastewater and solid waste reuse in agriculture. Nairobi workshop proceedings, IDRC (in press)

Penning de Vries, F. W.T, H. Acquay, D. Molden, S.J. Scherr, C. Valentin and O. Cofie. 2002. Integrated land and water management for food and environmental security. CA Research Paper 01. IWMI/GEF. 70pp.

Vázquez, R., Cofie, O.O., Drechsel, P. and I.F. Mensa-Bonsu, 2002. Linking urban agriculture with urban management: A challenge for policy makers and planners. In: C.A. Brebbia et al. (eds.): The Sustainable City II. Urban Regeneration and Sustainability, WIT Press, 925- 934

Cofie, O.O., Drechsel, P.. Amoah, P. Danso, G and Gyiele, L. 2001. Improving rural-urban nutrient flows through urban and peri-urban agriculture. Presented at the international conference on ‘Rural-Urban Encounters: Managing the Environment of the Peri-urban Interface’, Development Planning Unit, University College London, 9-10 November 2001

Drechsel, P., Gyiele, L., Kunze, D. and Cofie, O.O.. 2001 Population density, soil nutrient depletion and economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa. Ecological Economics 38:251-258

Oorts K, Vanlauwe, B. Cofie, O.O. Sanginga, N and Merckx R. 2000 Charge Characteristics of soil organic matter fractions in a Ferric Lixisol under some multipurpose trees. Agroforestry Systems 48: 169-188.

Cofie,O.O. and E.J. Udo 1998. Comparison of the effect of locally produced lime and imported lime on soil acidity. Appl. Trop. Agric. Vol. 3, No. 1, 10-14.

Epebinu, O. and Nwadialo B. 1993. Prediction of available water from soil texture and organic matter content for Nigerian soils. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 24(7&8): 633-640.

132

CURRICULUM VITAE

Name : de FraitureFirst Name : CharlotteYear of Birth : 27 October 1962Nationality : Dutch

Key Qualifications

Charlotte de Fraiture has 12 years working experience in the field of water management for agriculture. During the first five years of her career, she was involved in implementation and management of irrigation and rural development projects in Peru, Senegal and Nepal. She started working for the International Water Management Institute in 1996 in the Colombia office and was transferred to the headquarters in Colombo one year later. She was involved in several research projects related to watershed development, irrigation performance indicators and modelling global water supply and demand. She had a major input in the development of the Policy Dialogue Model (Podium) that was used extensively during the regional consultation meetings of World Water Vision 2025. Jointly with ICID and the Central Water Commission in India she adapted the global model for use at national level. Podium is adopted by the ICID as input in their country position papers. Currently, she is involved in a joint global water and food modelling exercise with the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).

Education1984 BSc Physical Geography, Utrecht State University, the Netherlands1990 MSc Tropical Land and Water Management, Wageningen Agricultural University, the

Netherlands

2002 MA Economics, University of Colorado, Boulder, USA

2003 PhD Civil Engineering: Water Resources Management, University of Colorado, Boulder, USA

Language SkillsWritten Spoken

English fluent fluent

Spanish good good

French good fair

German fair fair

Professional Experience1997 – present Researcher at International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka1996-1997 Researcher at International Water Management Institute, Regional Office in Cali, Colombia1994-1995 Co-ordinator Construction Unit, Mechi Hill Development Project, Ilam, Nepal1992-1994 Irrigation advisor, Dhaulagiri Irrigation Development Project, Jomsom & Pokhara, Nepal1990 and 1991 Evaluation research irrigated vegetable gardens for women groups, Ile a Morphil, Senegal

List of Assignments and Projects2001-present Researcher, impact of global policies on food production and water use. Research project jointly

with International Food Policy Research Institute (Washington DC): Development of global water and food simulation model (Watersim)

1999-2000 Input in IWMI’s contribution to World Water Vision 2025: Development of Policy Dialogue Model (Podium). Preparation of water scarcity map. Presentation of Podium at Regional Consultation meetings

1997-1998 Implementation and improvement of IWMI’s irrigation performance indicators1997-1998 Impacts of Irrigation Management Transfer in Nepal1996-1997 Hill Watershed Development Project, Cabuyal, Colombia 1995-1996 Responsible for logistics of rural development project (drinking water, sanitation, trails and

bridges, irrigation facilities), Nepal1992-1995 Design, implementation and quality control of rehabilitation works in village irrigation schemes

in NepalPublicationsJournal articlesDE FRAITURE, C., X.CAI, M.ROSEGRANT, D.MOLDEN and U.AMARASINGHE. 2003. Addressing the

Unanswered Questions in Global Water Policy: a Methodology Framework. Irrigation and Drainage v. 52DE FRAITURE, C.; MOLDEN, D.; AMARASINGHE, U. 2001. Food and water demand and demand in 2025. In:

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems, UNESCO.


133

DE FRAITURE, C.; MOLDEN, D.; AMARASINGHE, U.; MAKIN, I. 2001. Podium: Projecting water supply and demand for food production in 2025. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth (B. Hydrology Oceans and Atmosphere), Vol.26(11/12): 869-876

BARKER, R.; SCOTT, C. A.; DE FRAITURE, C.; AMARASINGHE, U. 2000. Global water shortages and the challenge facing Mexico. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 16(4):525-542.

SAKTHIVADIVEL, R.; DE FRAITURE, C.; MOLDEN, D. J.; PERRY, C.; KLOEZEN, W. 1999. Indicators of land and water productivity in irrigated agriculture. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 15(1/2):161-179.

Technical and workshop papers

De FRAITURE, C. and C. PERRY; 2002 Why is irrigation water demand inelastic at low price ranges? Paper presented at Irrigation water Policies: Micro and macro considerations. Jointly organized by Worldbank and Government of Morocco. June 15-17, 2002. Agadir, Morocco.

DE FRAITURE, C.; MOLDEN, D. 2000. Podium: Projecting water supply and demand for food production in 2025. Paper presented at International Conference on Managing Natural Resources for Sustainable Agricultural Production, 14-18 February 2000, Delhi.

SECKLER, D.; SAKTHIVADIVEL, R.; KELLER, A.; AMARASINGHE, U. A.; DE FRAITURE, C.; MOLDEN, D. 2000. World water supply and demand: 1995 to 2025. Report of the Prepared Food and Rural Development Section of the World Water Vision Exercise, March 2000.

SAMAD, M.; DE FRAITURE, C.; PRASAD, K. C. 1999. Impact assessment of irrigation management transfer in selected irrigation systems in Nepal. In Parajuli, U. N.; Krishna, C. P. (Eds.), Workshop proceedings - Evaluation of irrigation management transfer process and performance. Workshop held in Lalitpur, Nepal, 11-12 October 1999. Nepal; Colombo, Sri Lanka. Department of Irrigation. Research and Technology Development Branch; IWMI. 20p.

DE FRAITURE, C.; GARCÉS-RESTREPO, C. 1998. Evaluacion de las tendencias y los cambios en el desempeno de la irrigacion: El caso del Distrito de Riego de Samaca , Colombia. [Assessing trends and changes in irrigation performance: The case of Samaca Irrigation Scheme, Colombia] México, D.F., México: IWMI. xv, 54p. (IWMI serie Latinoamericana no.2)

MOLDEN, D. J.; SAKTHIVADIVEL, R.; PERRY, C. J.; DE FRAITURE, C.; KLOEZEN, W. H. 1998. Indicators for comparing performance of irrigated agricultural systems. Colombo, Sri Lanka: IIMI. v, 26p. (IIMI research report 20)

DE FRAITURE, C.; ADHIKARI, B. K. 1998. Performance measure study in Nepal. In Sijapati, S.; Prasad, K. C. (Eds.), Evaluation of Irrigation Management Transfer Process and Performance, Workshop held in Kathmandu, 17-18 September 1998. pp.39-54.

DE FRAITURE, C.; TULADHAR, A. 1998. Preliminary findings of IMT impact assessment study. In Sijapati, S.; Prasad, K. C. (Eds.), Evaluation of Irrigation Management Transfer Process and Performance, Workshop held in Kathmandu, 17-18 September 1998. pp.55-62.

MOLDEN, D. J.; SAKTHIVADIVEL, R.; PERRY, C. J.; DE FRAITURE, C. 1997. Indicators for comparing performance of irrigated agricultural systems. In IIMI; ILRI; INA - CRA; IHE; UNC, International seminar: Research Program on Irrigation Performance (RPIP), Mendoza, Argentina, November 3-7, 1997. 15p. + annex.

134

CURRICULUM VITAE

Name Dr. Pay DRECHSEL Affiliation

Year of Birth 1960 IWMI Office for West Africa, PMB CT 112, Accra, Ghana

Email: [email protected] German

Expertise Environmental Scientist

Key QualificationsPay Drechsel has 15 years of working experience as environmental scientist in projects aiming at integrated natural resources management and sustainable agricultural production in developing countries, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. He has served as R&D consultant, mostly for GTZ, in soil science and plant nutrition, land suitability evaluation, agro-forestry, environmental pollution and soil degradation in Benin, Burkina Faso, Russia, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan, and Togo. In charge of the Africaland network of the International Board for Soil Research and Management (IBSRAM), Pay coordinated from 1996 till 2000 research projects in Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and Cameroon. After being based at IBSRAM HQ in Thailand, he set up and headed IBSRAM’s Africa Office in Kumasi, Ghana from 1997 till 2001. In this period, Pay joined the scientific steering committee of the system-wide Soil, Water and Nutrient Management (SWNM) program. His research work focussed in this period on participatory on-farm research and resource economics. With the incorporation of IBSRAM’s research programs and projects into the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) of the CGIAR, Pay took over IWMI’s subregional office for West Africa in Accra with currently 15 staff members. He is IWMI project leader and contributed to the set up of the African Water Task Force.Since 1999, Pay is coordinating several projects on urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) and related environmental impacts with special focus on wastewater use and the comprehensive and multidisciplinary UPA assessment. He also took part in the global set-up of related regional focal points (RUAF) and is currently in the steering committee of the System-wide Initiative on Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture (SIUPA or Urban Harvest). Pay has nearly 100 publications and conference contributions with more than 20 in reviewed international journals, such as Environmental Pollution, Ecological Economics, International Journal of Environmental Studies, Water, Air & Soil Pollution, Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, Plant & Soil, Agroforestry Systems, Economic Botany, Forest Ecology and Management, etc.

Education

1992 Ph.D. (summa cum laude) Environmental Science, University of Bayreuth, Germany.

1987 M.Sc. Environmental & Soil Science, University of Bayreuth, Germany.

Professional Experience

2001 - date Senior researcher at International Water Management Institute, IWMI (CGIAR) - Head of West Africa Subregional Office. Responsible for different projects, mostly on urban and peri-urban agriculture.

1996 - 2001 Senior researcher at International Board for Soil Research and Management (IBSRAM), based in Thailand (HQ) and Ghana.

1995 - 1996 Consultant for Greenpeace & University of Bayreuth in Russia; for GTZ and Deutsche Forstservice GmbH in Benin; and for European Nature-land Association in Germany.

1993 - 1994 Consultant for GTZ in Rwanda; project work with the National University of Rwanda and the Agroforestry project PASI.

1992- 1993 Joint research project with Geographical Institute of Moscow, Russia, with fieldwork in Uzbekistan.

1990 - 1992 Scientific assistant at the Institute of Soil Science and Soil Geography, University of Bayreuth with Ph.D. work in Togo, Benin, Côte d’Ivoire. Consultant for GTZ in Sudan.

1987 - 1988 Subcontracted consultant for BMZ with studies in Italy, France, Benin and Burkina Faso. Consultant for GTZ in Somalia. First fieldwork in Somalia in 1985.


135

List of Assignments and Projects2001 -date Leader Ghana wastewater irrigation project (IWMI); Organizer Accra Water Conference

2000 - date Leader of the IDRC funded project on Closing the rural – urban nutrient cycle in Ghana with different subprojects on (peri)urban agriculture

2000 - 2001 Leader of the FAO funded project on an Integrated Economic Environmental Impact Assessment of (peri)urban Agriculture in Ghana

1998 - 2000 Leader of the IBSRAM contribution to the DFID funded project on Confronting soil erosion and nutrient depletion in the humid/subhumid tropics (SWNM program)

1999 Organiser of the IBSRAM conference on Urban and peri-urban agriculture in Accra, Ghana, with FAO (and editor of the proceedings)

1996 -1998 Coordinator of IBSRAM’s Africaland research network on the management of upland soils with related conference and workshop assignments incl. the organisation of annual meetings and editing of related proceedings

1995 - 1996 Coordinator of field studies on Dioxin, PCB and heavy metal pollution in Moscow, Nishny Novgorod, Dzerzhinsk, and Serpukhov in Russia;

Responsible for the development of guidelines for soil mapping for site adapted reforestation on Vertisols in Benin with extensive local fieldwork (with D. Hincourt).

1994 In charge of the development of an SPSS-program and manual for the interpretation of plant analysis with DRIS and supervision of DRIS studies on coffee and bush beans.

1993/94 Chief consultant working on the analysis and documentation of five years of GTZ/ISAR field experiments on green manuring, planted fallows, and erosion control with hedgerows (participatory approach) in Rwanda.

1992/93 Team member of a project on Holocene climate change in Uzbekistan, Central Asia (with O. Savoskul).

1991 Supervision of soil and land suitability evaluation studies for reforestation in the Jebbel Mara area, Sudan.

1990-1992 In charge of a project on relationships between growth, mineral nutrition and site factors of teak (Tectona grandis) plantations in the rainforest zone of West Africa (Togo, Benin, Côte d”Ivoire).

1988 Consultant for soil surveys for reforestation and erosion control, site adapted species selection, and rainwater harvesting for tree establishment in Central and Northern Somalia.

Study on fertilization trials in Benin and supervison of agroforestry trials in Togo.

1987/88 Co-author of BMZ report 93 on the Impact of afforestations in developing countries with visits of FAO, GTZ, CTFT, as well as field studies in Benin and Burkina Faso.

1985 Team member working on soil surveys for reforestation, rainwater harvesting, and the study of endangered fodder plants in Central Somalia (with W. Zech and M. Kaupenjohann).

Selected publications

Drechsel, P. Gyiele, L., Kunze, D. and F. Cofie. 2001. Population density, soil nutrient depletion, and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa. Ecological Economics 38(2): 251 - 258

Drechsel, P. and L. Gyiele (Eds.) 1998. On-farm research on sustainable land management in Sub-Saharan Africa: Approaches, experiences, and lessons. IBSRAM proceedings 19; 254 pp.

Drechsel, P., Steiner, K.G. and F. Hagedorn. 1996. A review on the potential of improved fallows and green manure in Rwanda. Agroforestry Systems 33: 109-136

Drechsel, P. and D. Kunze (Eds.) 2001. Waste Composting for Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture - Closing the rural-urban nutrient cycle in sub-Saharan Africa. IWMI/FAO/CABI: Wallingford, 229 pages

Drechsel, P., U.J. Blumenthal and B. Keraita. 2002. Balancing health and livelihoods: Adjusting wastewater irrigation guidelines for resource-poor countries. Urban Agriculture Magazine 8: 7-9

136

CURRICULUM VITAE

Name : InocencioFirst name : ArleneYear of birth : 1966Nationality : Philippines

Key QualificationsHas over 12 years of research experience working in international and national research institutions and the academe. Has done work in some African countries in the last two years and Asia (particularly the Philippines) before this. Serves as coordinator at IWMI Africa of a collaborative project of 5 major institutions (World Bank, African Development Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, International Fund for Agricutlral Development together with IWMI) on an investment strategy for water in agriculture and has been working on determinants of irrigation costs which is one component study under the collaborative project.

A Ph.D. in Economics with a strong econometrics background and a substantial experience with policy research, networking and collaborative work. In the Philippines, as coordinator of an agricultural policy fora series for over a year, interacted with experts in various fields which helped deepen understanding and knowledge of important concerns confronting the Philippine agriculture sector and role of the national agricultural research system.

Had taught public finance and public fiscal administration; with intensive training on environmental valuation and welfare economics, air and water pollution issues, and macro-economic modelling for assessment of environmental impacts and climate planning; has acquired excellent fieldwork skills having designed/developed and implemented several household/firm surveys in urban and rural areas and performed quantitative analyses using survey data. Had good experience in actively disseminating research results to policymakers and other stakeholders through the conduct of briefings, seminars/workshops, and writing of policy briefs.

Has written on various topics: (1) innovative approaches in water use and management in agriculture for addressing food security and reducing poverty, and understanding components and determinants cost of irrigation in sub-Saharan Africa; (2) major agriculture issues including historical and detailed analyses of public expenditures/investments, overall agricultural sector performance, and agricultural productivity assessment; (3) analyses of economic incentives to reduce air and water pollution; (4) estimation of urban water demand and basic water requirements for households, and assessing impact of private-public-community partnerships in servicing the urban poor; and (5) assessment of environmental impacts of trade liberalization and other government policies using macro and economy-wide models, among others.

Has a capacity for working in interdisciplinary and multicultural teams. With proficiency in English language both oral and written and strong computer skills.

Education1990-19971993-1994

1987-1990

1982-1986

Ph.D. Economics, University of the Philippines, Quezon City, PhilippinesDoctoral Enrichment, Fulbright Program (Professional Development Program), Applied Economics Department, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, U.S.A.M.A. Economics, (Philippine Center for Economic Development scholar & School of Economics Teaching Fellow) University of the Philippines, Quezon City, PhilippinesB.S. Mathematics, magna cum laude & Philippine Government State Scholar (4 years), University of San Carlos, Cebu City, Philippines

Professional ExperienceFull time workOct. 16, 2001 - presentJuly 22, 1997- Oct. 15, 2001June 1996 – June 1997Feb. 1994 – May 1996(Mar. 1993 – Jan. 1994)Oct. 1992 – Mar. 1993(May – Sept. 1992)Oct. 1990 – May 1992Consulting 1992 - 2001

Economist, International Water Management Institute-Africa Office, Pretoria, South Africa

Research Fellow, Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS), Makati City, Philippines

Senior Research Associate, Resources, Environment and Economics Center for Studies, Inc. (REECS), Quezon City, PhilippinesResearch Associate, Policy and Development Foundation, Inc. (PDFI), Makati City, Philippines

(Fulbright scholar in the U.S.)

Research Associate, PIDS, Makati City, Philippines

(Consultant at PIDS)

Senior Research Assistant, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines

Did various consulting with the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Development Academy of the Philippines, Asian Development Bank, the World Bank (WB) Rural Development and Natural Resources Sector Unit, East Asia and Pacific Region, and the Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund (OECF)-Philippines

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Selected Papers

Sally, H., A. Inocencio, and D. Merrey. 2003. “Agricultural Land and Water Management for Poverty Reduction and Economic Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa: Setting the Research Agenda,” African Water Journal No. 1. December.

Inocencio, A., I. De Jong, H. Sally, and D. Merrey. 2003. “Irrigation Capital Investment Costs In Sub-Saharan Africa: An Overview Of Issues and Evidence,” Draft report submitted to the World Bank.

Dufournaud, C. and A. Inocencio. 2003. “The Poor, the Smallholder and the Big Economy: An Economy-wide Analysis of Poverty Impacts of Government Policies in South Africa,” Draft Report. IWMI-SA.

Inocencio, A., H. Sally, and D.J. Merrey. 2003. “Innovative Approaches to Agricultural Water Use for Improving Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa,” IWMI Working Paper 55.

Barker, R., D. Dawe, and A. Inocencio. 2003. “Economics of Water Productivity in Managing Water for Agriculture,” In Kijne, W.J.;Barker, R.; and Molden, D. (eds.) Water Productivity in Agriculture: Limits and Opportunities for Improvement (Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture Series, No. 1). Wallingford, U.K.: CABI Publishing.

Inocencio, A. 2003. “Public-Private Partnership in Water Supply in Metro Manila, Is it Serving the Urban Poor?,” Waterlines Vol. 21 No.3.

Dufournaud, C., M. Jerret, U. Rodrigues, J. Quinn, A. Inocencio. 2003. “The net cost of banning commercial foresting: a computable general equilibrium analysis for the Philippines.” Environment and Planning A, Vol. 35, (4) April.

Inocencio, A. 2002. “The Role of Local Governments in Management and Delivery of Urban Services,” In Sustainable Urban Services – Santiago de Chile Seminar. ed. Genevieve Dubois-Taine, PUCA – METLTM: France

Inocencio, A. 2001. “Public-Private- Partnerships in Management and Delivery of Water to Urban Poor,” In Sustainable Urban Services – Hong Kong Seminar. ed. Genevieve Dubois-Taine, PUCA – METL: France

Inocencio, A. and Cristina C. David. 2001. “Public-Private-Community Partnerships in Management and Delivery of Water to Urban Poor: the Case of Metro Manila,” Philippine Institute for Development Studies Discussion Paper Series No. 2001-18.

Inocencio, A., C. Dufournaud, and U. Rodriguez. 2001. “Impact of Tax Changes on Environmental Emissions: An Applied General Equilibrium Approach for the Philippines,” IMAPE Research Paper No. 07.

Inocencio, A. 2001. “Serving the Urban Poor through Public-Private-Community Partnerships in Water Supply,” Philippine Institute for Development Studies Policy Notes No. 2001-10.

Inocencio, A. and C. David. 2001. " Assessment of the Medium Term National Action Agenda for Productivity (MNAAP): Agriculture Sector," Philippine Institute for Development Studies Discussion Paper Series No. 2001-13.

David, C. and A. Inocencio. 2000. “Key Indicators for Public Expenditure in Agriculture, National Resources, and the Environment,” Philippine Institute for Development Studies Discussion Paper Series No. 2000-26.

David, C., A. Inocencio, et al. 2000. “Urban Water Pricing: The Case of Metro Manila and Metro Cebu,” Philippine Institute for Development Studies Policy Notes No. 2000-09.

David, C. and A. Inocencio. 2000. “Rural Sector Public Expenditures: Key Issues, Strategies and Performance Indicators,” In Rural Development and Natural Resource Management: Trends and Strategy Implementation and Framework Performance Indicator System, Vol. II, Annex 9, World Bank Rural Development and Natural Resources Sector Unit, East Asia and Pacific Region.

Inocencio, A., J. Padilla, and M. Javier. 1999. "Determination of Basic Household Water Requirements," Philippine Institute for Development Studies Discussion Paper Series No. 99-02. (February).

Inocencio, A., C. David, and D. Gundaya. 1999. “Impact of Trade Liberalization and Exchange Rate Policy on Industrial Water Pollution and Groundwater Depletion,” IMAPE Research Paper No. 03.

Largo, F., A. Inocencio, and C. David. 1999. "Understanding Household Water Demand for Metro Cebu," Philippine Institute for Development Studies Development Research News, November-December Issue.

Inocencio, A., J. Padilla and Ma. E. Javier. 1999. "How Much Water Do Households Require," Philippine Institute for Development Studies Policy Notes No. 99-11 (October).

Inocencio, A. 1999. "Assessment of the 1998 Achievements of the Estrada Administration in Agriculture and Fisheries Sector," A paper submitted to the Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund (OECF) as part of the Macro Study assessing the overall performance of the Estrada administration. (May).

David, C., A. Inocencio, F. Largo, and E. Walag. 1998. “Water in Metro Cebu: The Case for Policy Reforms,” Journal of Philippine Development, No. 46, Vol. XXV No. 2.

David, C. and A. Inocencio. 1998. "Understanding Household Demand for Water: The Metro Manila Case," Economy and Environment Program for Southeast Asia (EEPSEA) Research Report Series, Singapore. (January).

David, C., A. Inocencio, R. Abracosa, R. Clemente, and G. Tabios. 1998. "Optimal Water Pricing in Metro Manila," A report submitted to the Presidential Task Force on Water Resource Management and Development, Department of Environment and Natural Resources. (March).

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Name KAMARAFirst Name Abdul .B.Date of Birth February 14, 1963Nationality Sierra Leonean; e-mail: [email protected] OR [email protected]

Key Qualifications

Abdul Kamara has eight years experience in development and policy research (1996 – 2003) in projects aimed at

improving natural resource management and sustainable agricultural production in developing countries. He has worked

in various countries especially in Eastern and Southern Africa, including Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa.

Kamara holds an M.Sc. in agricultural economics and a Ph.D. in agricultural economics and rural development from the

Georg-August-University of Göttingen, Germany. He is currently an agricultural economist and policy researcher at the

International Water Management Institute (IWMI/CGIAR), where he leads projects on the ‘economic viability of

smallholder irrigation systems in Southern Africa’, and on ‘water and food security’ in selected African countries,

implemented in South Africa, Ethiopia and Tanzania. He is also involved in other research initiatives on the role of

markets and smallholder technologies in generating rural livelihoods in Southern Africa. Kamara has also served as

assistant lecturer at the Institute of Rural Development, University of Göttingen in Germany from 1999 – 2000, where he

taught applied production economics and computer applications in econometric to graduate students, and as a consultant

for the Interdisciplinary Centre for Sustainable Development, Göttingen, Germany. From 1997 – 1999, he served as a

joint research associate of the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI, Nairobi) and the International Food

Policy Research Institute (IFPRI, Washington, D.C.), where he led and implemented the Ethiopian component of the

collaborative project on Property Rights, Risks and Livestock Development in Sub-Saharan Africa. His research work in

Ethiopia won Germany’s Josef G. Knoll Science Award in 2002, making him the 1st Sierra Leonean (and 4th African)

Laureate of this prestigious scientific honour. Further professional experience include research in Market Orientation and

Agricultural Intensification in rural Kenya, conducted during a research associate work at the Institute of Agricultural

Marketing, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany.

Education2000 Ph.D. (magna cum laude) in Agricultural Economics & Rural Development: Institute of Rural

Development, Georg-August-University of Göttingen, Germany 1997 M.Sc. (cum laude) in Agricultural Economics: Department of Agricultural Economics and

Social Sciences, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany.1993 B.Sc. in General Agriculture (Vordiplom): Faculty of Agriculture, University of Hohenheim,

Stuttgart, Germany.

Scientific Honour Josef G. Knoll Science Award 2002, Eiselen-Foundation, GERMANY; for outstanding scientific contribution in the area of food security (The importance of property rights and risk for livestock development in Southern Ethiopia).

Professional Experience2001 Now: Research Scientist – economist, the International Water Management Institute, IWMI

(CGIAR), Africa Regional Program, Pretoria, South Africa (South Africa, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Ghana).

2000 – 2001 Consultant, Interdisciplinary Centre for Sustainable Development, Göttingen, Germany1999 2000: Assistant Lecturer and Doctoral Fellow at the Institute of Rural Development, University of

Goettingen, Germany.1997 1999 ILRI/IFPRI Joint Research Associate attached to the Livestock Policy Analysis Project at

ILRI, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and Nairobi, Kenya.1995 1996 Scientific Assistant, Institute of Agricultural Marketing, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart,

Germany, and Institute of Development Studies, Nairobi, Kenya.1992 1993 Farm Management Assistant, Experimental Farm, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart,

Germany.

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mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

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Projects/Assignments 2001 – 2003 Leader, project on ‘Simulation Modelling of Linkages between Water and Food Security in Sub-

Saharan Africa’: The Policy Dialogue Model (PODIUM); Ethiopia, Tanzania, South Africa (IWMI/FAO)

2002 Team Member, Integrated Water and Land Management Research and Capacity Building Priorities in Ethiopia (IWMI, UNECA, UNCCD, ILRI) (co-editor of the Proceedings)

2001 – 2003 Leader, project on ‘Economic Viability of Smallholder Irrigation Systems in selected countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (IWMI)

2000 – 2001 Team member, Policy Options for Sustainable Management of Coral Reefs and Associated Coastal Ecosystems (IZNE).

1997 – 1999 Team member, project ‘Property Rights, Risk and Livestock Development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Leader of the Ethiopian component (ILRI/IFPRI).

1995 – 1996 Team member, project on ‘Market Orientation and Agricultural Intensification in rural Kenya’. Worked on the ‘impact of market access and agricultural productivity and input use in rural Kenya’ (University of Hohenheim, Germany).

Selected PublicationsKamara, A. B., Kirk, M. and Swallow, B. (2003): Property Rights and Land Use Change: Implications for Sustainable

Resource Management in Borana, Southern Ethiopia. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, USA. Vol. XX, [Forthcoming: accepted September 2003]

Kamara, A. B. and Sally, H. (2003): Promoting Policy Options on Water for Food Security and Livelihoods: The Case of South Africa. Journal of Development Southern Africa. Vol. XX, [Forthcoming: accepted September 2003]

Kamara, A. B. (2003): The Impact of Market Access on Input Use and Agricultural Productivity:Evidence from Machakos District, Kenya.. Agrekon . Vol XX [Forthcoming: accepted October 2003]

Kamara, A. B., Swallow B. M. and Kirk, M. (2003): The Role of Policies and Development Interventions in Pastoral Resource Management: The Borana Rangelands in Southern Ethiopia. Socio-economics and Policy Research, No. 53. International Livestock research Institute, ILRI, Nairobi.

McCarthy, N., Kamara, A. B. & Kirk, M. (2003): Co-operation in Risky Environments: Evidence from Southern Ethiopia. Journal of African Economies, Oxford. Vol. 12(2), pp. 236 – 270. Kamara, A. B. (2002): Smallholder Irrigation Water For Poverty Alleviation: Challenges for Community-Based

Management in South Africa. Department for International Development (DFID). Knowledge and Research. Issue 14, pp. 5., UK.

Kamara, A. B., van Koppen, B. & Magingxa, L. (2002): Economic Viability of Small Scale Irrigation Systems in the Context of State Withdrawal: The Arabie Scheme in the Northern Province of South Africa. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Netherlands. Vol. 27 (12), pp. 815 – 823.

Kamara, A. B. (2001): The Concept of Property Rights and Common Pool Resources: An Economic Perspective for Analyzing Sustainable Use. European Union Fisheries Research Report Series, Vol. 10. Part III, pp. 123 – 128. Brussels.

Kamara, A. B. (2001): Property Rights, Risk and Livestock Development in Southern Ethiopia. Socio-economic Studies on Rural Development. Vol. 123. Wissenschafts-verlag Vauk, Kiel KG, Kiel, Germany. 200 pages, ISBN: 3-8175-0337-7 (Award winning publication; published out of the Ph.D. dissertation).

Kamara, A. B. (2001): The Status of Common Property Resource Tenure in Semiarid Eastern Africa: Evidences from the Borana Rangelands of Southern Ethiopia. In: Knerr, B.; Kirk, M. and Buchenrieder, G. (eds). The Role of Resource Tenure, Finance & Social Security in Rural Development. GTZ and Margraf Verlag, Weikersheim, Germany, pp. 75 – 88.

Kamara, A. B. & von Oppen, M. (1999): Efficiency and Equity Effects of Market Access on Agricultural Productivity: The Case of Small Farmers in Machakos District, Kenya. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture. Volume 38 (1), pp. 65 – 77.

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CURRICULUM VITAE

Name McCartneyFirst name MatthewYear of birth 1966Nationality British

Key Qualifications

Hydrologist specialising in water resources and wetland and hydro-ecological studies. Experience comes from having participated in a broad range of research and applied projects often as part of a multi-disciplinary team. Experienced in data collection, extension of data records, application of hydrological methods and the calibration and use of computer models as well as planning, designing, managing and coordinating water resource and environmental studies. Between 1995 and 1997 responsible for managing a project investigating the hydrological fluxes within seasonal wetlands in southern Africa (dambos) and their role in maintaining dry season river flows. This included the establishment of hydrometric and hydrochemical monitoring networks, the training of local counterparts and quality control and analyses of all data collected. Since 1997, heavily involved in conducting broad ranging reviews for national and international organizations such as the UK Department For International Development (DFID), the World Conservation Union (IUCN), the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the World Bank. Member of UNEP Expert Mission to Mozambique on natural resource development of the Lower Limpopo; Advisor to FAO on the environmental monitoring of wetlands in Zambia; Member of Danida technical team advising on the construction of small earth dams in Malawi.

Education

1998 Ph.D. The hydrology of a headwater catchment containing a dambo. University of Reading1988 M.Sc. Engineering Hydrology. Imperial College, London1987 B.Sc. Environmental Science. University of Lancaster

Positions Held

2002 - present Researcher, International Water Management Institute Hydrologists in Africa Regional Office, Pretoria, South Africa Developing projects and research initiatives relating to wetland utilization, climate

change and water resources. Supervision of post-graduate students. Provision of technical advice to International Hydropower Association and Hydro-

Quebec. Assessment of wetland hydrological functions for sustainable management for poverty

alleviation.1999-2002 Senior Scientific Officer, Hydro-ecology & Wetlands Section

Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, UK Modelling, management and policy development of wetlands in UK and Africa. Provision of technical advice on water issues to IUCN, UNEP, GEF, FAO, DFID,

Danida, National Trust and English Nature. Assessment of the environmental impacts of large dams and methods of mitigation for

DFID, IUCN and World Commission on Dams1994-1998 Higher Scientific Officer, Flow Regimes & Environmental Management Section

Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, UK Design and implementation of research into the hydrological processes of headwater

wetlands in southern Africa Evaluation of hydrological processes and modelling of wetland hydrology Development of hydrological design guidelines for small earth dams in Malawi Water resource assessment of the Kafue River, Zambia

1989-1993 Scientific Officer, Water Resource Systems Section Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, UK


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Application of hydrological/hydrochemical models (Nilufer River, Turkey) Real time flood forecasting, Hong Kong Assessment of river and reservoir yield (e.g., Kielder Reservoir, UK)

Selected Publications

McCARTNEY, M.P. (2002) Freshwater ecosystem management: from theory to application. International Journal of Water 2(1) 1-16.

McCARTNEY, M.P. (2002) Large dams and integrated water resources assessment, with reference to theKafue hydroelectric scheme. In Proceedings Hydro2002, Kiris, Turkey, 4-7 November, 389-397.

McCARTNEY, M.P., CHIRWA, A., HOUGHTON-CARR, H.A. (2002) Estimating design floods for small earth dams in Malawi. FRIEND 2002 4th International Conference on FRIEND Bridging the Gap between Research and Practice. Cape Town, 18-22 March 2002. IAHS Publication No. 274, 139-148.

McCARTNEY, M.P., ACREMAN, M.C. (2002) Environmental flow releases from reservoirs for the conservation of floodplain ecosystems and their dependent livelihoods. Enviro Flows 2002. Proceedings of the International Conference on Environmental Flows for River Systems, Cape Town, March 2002.

McCARTNEY, M.P. (2001) Living with dams: planning and management to reduce the environmental costs of dams. Report to IUCN/UNEP. 36 pp.

McCARTNEY, M.P.,FARQUHARSON, F.A.K. (2001) Hydrology and poverty alleviation. IAHS workshop on hydrology and poverty alleviation. 15-16 March, Lusaka. 6 pp.

McCARTNEY, M.P., ACREMAN, M.C. (2001) Managed flood releases as an environmental mitigation option. International Journal of Hydropower and Dams 8 (1) 74-80.

McCARTNEY, M.P., ACREMAN, M.C. (2000) The downstream environmental impacts of dams with particular reference to floods. International Workshop on Development and Management of Floodplains and Wetlands. Beijing, China, 5-8 September, 2000. 8-16.

McCARTNEY, M.P., ACREMAN,M.C., BERGKAMP,G. (2000) Freshwater ecosystem management and environmental security. In IUCN: Vision For Water and Nature: a world strategy for conservation and sustainable management of water resources in the 21st century - Compilation of all project documents. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, 151-203.

McCARTNEY, M.P., ACREMAN, M.C., FARQUHARSON, F.A.K., (2000) Guidelines for managed flood releases from reservoirs. British Hydrological Society National Symposium, Newcastle 4-6 September, 2000 4.1- 4.7.

BERGKAMP, G., McCARTNEY, M., DUGAN, P., McNEELY, J, ACREMAN, M. (2000) Dams, ecosystem functions and environmental restoration. Thematic Review II.1 World Commission on Dams, Cape Town.200 pp.

McCARTNEY, M.P., SULLIVAN, C., ACREMAN, M. (1999) Ecosystem impacts of large dams. A review for IUCN. 80 pp.

McCARTNEY, M.P., Houghton-Carr, H.A. (1998) A modelling approach to assess inter-sectoral competition for water resources in the Kafue Flats, Zambia. J. CIWEM 12(2) 101-106.

McCARTNEY, M.P., NADEN, P.S. (1995) A semi-empirical investigation of flood plain storage on flood flow. J. CIWEM, 9 (3) 236-246.

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CURRICULUM VITAE

Name MerreyFirst name DouglasYear of birth 1945Nationality USA

Key QualificationsSubstantial grassroots field experience in rural Asia which informs work at national and international policy levels; strategic and practical management skills; effective leadership of multidisciplinary international teams; broad integrated understanding of water resource and irrigation management issues; participatory approaches to research, institutional change and management; institutional analysis; research and advice on natural resource management policy and institutions; communication skills, both oral and written; project design and preparation of proposals; supporting and assisting professional colleagues to achieve their potential; experience working for donors, consultants and research institutions; 18 years experience with an international research institute; over 24 years of experience working and living in developing countries; last 3 years have been working in Africa.

EducationYear 1967 B.A. in history magna cum laude, Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA1972 M.A., South Asian Studies, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA1983 Ph.D., Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA

Positions HeldYear-2000-present Director for Africa, IWMI1998-2000 Deputy Director General (Programs), IWMI1996-1998 Principal Researcher, IWMI1996 Vice President, Gaia International Management Inc., Jakarta, Indonesia1985-1995 Various positions, IWMI, Colombo Sri Lanka and Cairo, Egypt1982-1985 Senior Social Science Advisor to USAID, through USDA Graduate School, Washington.

DC. USA1980-1982 Institutional Advisor, Gal Oya Water Management Project, through PRC Engineering,

Sri Lanka1978-1980 Social Anthropologist (Assistant Professor), Colorado State University On-Farm Water

Management Project, Pakistan

Selected PublicationsReorganizing Irrigation: A Case Study of Local Level Management in Punjab (Pakistan) . In: Desertification and Development: Drylands Ecology in Social Perspective. Eds. B Spooner and H S Mann. London: Academic Press. 1982.

Institutional Design Principles for Accountability on Large Irrigation Systems. IIMI Research Report No. 8, 1996. Colombo: IIMI.

The Local Impact of Centralized Irrigation Control in Pakistan: A Sociocentric Perspective . In: Lands at Risk in the Third World: Local Level Perspectives. Eds. P. D. Little and M. H. Horowitz. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 1987.

Methodologies for Assessing the Performance of Irrigation and Drainage Management. With M. G. Bos, D. H. Murray-Rust, H. G. Johnson, and W. B. Snellen. Irrigation and Drainage Systems 7 (4):231-261. 1994.

Expanding the Frontiers of Irrigation Management Research: Results of Research and Development at the International Irrigation Management Institute 1984 to 1995. Colombo: IWMI, 1997.

Institutional Design Principles for Accountability in Large Irrigation Systems. 1997. IWMI Research Report 8. Colombo: IWMI.

Gender Analysis and Reform of Irrigation Management: Concepts, Cases and Gaps in Knowledge . Proceedings of the Workshop on Gender and Water, September 1997 . Editor, with Shirish Baviskar. Colombo: IWMI, 1998.


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Governance and Institutional Arrangements for Managing Water Resources in Egypt . In: P. P. Mollinga, ed., Water Control in Egypt’s Canal irrigation: A Discussion of Institutional Issues at Different Levels. Liquid Gold 1998 Paper No. 3. Wageningen, Netherlands: Wageningen Agricultural University and International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), 1998.

What the Twenty First Century will Demand of Water Management Institutions. With D. L. Vermillion. Journal of Applied Irrigation Science 33 (2):145-164, 1998 (special issue in honor of Professor Dr. Peter Wolff’s 65 th birthday). [Slightly revised version reprinted in: Sustainable Agricultural Solutions: The Action Report of the Sustainable Agriculture Initiative. London: Novello Press Ltd., 1999.]

New Directions in Water Research: IWMI at the Threshold of the Twenty-First Century . With Christopher J. Perry. Water Resources Development 15 (1/2): 5-16, 1999. [Special Double Issue on Research from the International Water Management Institute. for which I was the Guest Editor].

Managing Groundwater in Hard-Rock Areas Through Agro-Well Design and Development. With C. S. de Silva, N. Fernando, and R. Sakthivadivel. Water Resources Development 15 (3): 333-348, 1999.

Creating Institutional Arrangements for Managing Water-Scarce Basins. Chapter 17 in: D. Virchow & J. von Braun, eds. Villages in the Future: Crops, Jobs, and Livelihood. Berlin: Springer, 2001.

Institutional Alternatives in African Smallholder Irrigation: Lessons from International Experience with Irrigation Management Transfer. With Tushaar Shah [lead author], Barbara van Koppen, Marna de Lange, & Madar Samad. 2002. IWMI Research Report 60. Colombo: IWMI.

Managing Water from Farmers’ Fields to River Basins: Implications of Scale . With David Molden. Chapter 11 in: A. Turton and R. Henwood, eds., Hydropolitics in the Developing World: A Southern African Perspective. Pretoria, South Africa: African Water Issues Research Unit, 2002.

Boundaries of Consent: Stakeholder Representation in River Basin Management in Mexico and South Africa . With Philippus Wester [lead author] and Marna de Lange. World Development 31 (5): 797-812, 2003.

Agricultural Water Use and Improving Rural Livelihoods in Sub-Saharan Africa: Current Status, Future Directions, and the Role of the International Program for Technology And Research in Irrigation and Drainage (IPTRID) . Keynote Paper prepared for the IPTRID Event at the International Congress for Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), Montreal, Canada, 23 July 2002. Presented on behalf of the South Africa Office of IWMI by Douglas Merrey.

Redressing Racial Inequities through Water Law in South Africa: Revisiting Old Contradictions? Barbara van Koppen, Nitish Jha and Douglas J. Merrey. Forthcoming as Comprehensive Assessment Research Report, 2003.

Innovative Approaches to Agricultural Water Use for Improving Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa. With Arlene Inocencio [lead author] and Hilmy Sally. 2003. IWMI Working Paper 55. Colombo: IWMI.

Agricultural Land and Water Management for Poverty Reduction and Economic Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa: Setting the Research Agenda. With Hilmy Sally [lead author] and Arlene Inocencio. African Water Journal, December 2003 [pilot edition].

Integrating ‘Livelihoods’ into Integrated Water Resources Management: Taking the Integration Paradigm to its Logical Next Step for Developing Countries. With P Drechsel, F. Penning de Vries, and H. Sally. Invited paper presented at MTMIV conference, 15-18 September, 2003, The Netherlands. Forthcoming in edited book, 2004.

Integrating Livelihoods and Natural Resources (Water & Land) Management: “Securing the Future for Africa’s Children”. IWMI Position Paper for FARA-led Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge Program Proposal, being published as volume 2 of proposal by the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa, 2003. With P. Drechsel and F Penning de Vries. Pro-Poor Irrigation Management Transfer: How to Make it Work for Africa’s Small Holders? IWMI briefing Paper, Issue 11. With T Shah [lead author], B van Koppen, M. de Lange, M. Samad. 2003. Based on IWMI Research Report 60 (above).

Proposed Framework for Collaborative Research and Capacity Building Program on Water and Land Management in Ethiopia. With G. Birhane, P Dubale, D. Peden. In: Integrated water and land management research and capacity building priorities for Ethiopia. Proceedings of a Workshop. Eds. P McCornick, A. B. Kamara, and G. Tadesse. Addis Ababa: ILRI and IWMI, 2003.

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146

CURRICULUM VITAE

Name Morardet-FabreFirst name SylvieYear of birth 1962Nationality French

Key Qualifications- political economics of water management reforms and institutions : research projects in collaboration

with the University of California in Berkeley and Davis (analysis and modeling of water management negotiation at river basin level : comparison of California and France), Cirad, University of Pretoria and IWMI (tools and methodologies for the implementation of sustainable and decentralized institutions for water management in South Africa), INRA, ENSAM, IAM (negotiation support tools for water management at river basin level)

- economic instruments for water resource management (water pricing, water markets), technical expertise for the French Ministries of Agriculture and Environment, and the French Water Agencies,

- economic analysis of irrigation projects at the farm, irrigation scheme and regional scales (analysis of agricultural production systems, economic modeling), with applications in France, Guadeloupe, Brazil (in collaboration with Cirad), Columbia (in collaboration with Instituto Nacional de Adecuacion de Tierras)

Education1992 Ph. D. in Agricultural Economics, University of Bourgogne, Dijon, France1986 MsC in Agricultural Economics, University of Bourgogne, Dijon, France1986 Agricultural and Environmental Engineer, Ecole Nationale du Génie Rural des Eaux et des Forêts,

Paris1985 Agronomy Engineer (Institut National Agronomique Paris-Grignon)

Positions Held

2003- Senior researcher, IWMI, Africa Office, Pretoria, South Africa

1996-2003 Supervision of the team "Economics of water resources and agricultural uses", Cemagref, Irrigation Laboratory, Montpellier (France)

1991-1996 Scientist, Cemagref Irrigation Laboratory, Montpellier (France)

1987-1991 Research Engineer, Cemagref, Agricultural Production and Economics Division, Antony (France)

Selected PublicationsThoyer S., Morardet S., Rio P. and Goodhue R. (2004). Comparaison des procédures de décentralisation et de négociation de

la gestion de l’eau en France et en Californie. Nature Sciences Sociétés, January 2004

Morardet S. and Rio P. (2003) Approches et instruments pour aider à formuler un problème de négociation. Paper presented at the ICID Conference, Montpellier, September 2003

Morardet S., Debray A. (2003). Volet économique du schéma directeur d'irrigation en Guadeloupe : évaluation de la demande en eau. Rapport pour le Conseil Général de Guadeloupe, Direction de l’Agriculture et de la Forêt de Guadeloupe, Cemagref, juin 2003

Morardet S., Mahjoubi, R. (2003). Evaluation économique de la valeur de l’eau pour l’usage irrigation : application à la vallée de l’Agout. Rapport pour EDF, Cemagref , <série Irrigation «Rapports » 2003-04 ; 1113>, juin 2003, 123 p.

Ducrot R., Le Gal P.Y., Morardet S., Jehan C., De Nys E. (2002). Transitions institutionnelles et agricoles dans les périmètres irrigués du pôle Petrolina – Juazeiro (Brésil). D’une logique sociale vers une logique managériale. In Garin P., Le Gal P.Y. et Ruf T. (Eds) (2002). La gestion des périmètres irrigués collectifs à l’aube du XXI ème siècle. Enjeux, problèmes, démarches. Actes de l’Atelier PCSI, 22-23 janvier 2001, Montpellier, France, Cemagref, Cirad, IRD, pp.109-123

Simon L. K., Goodhue R. E., Rausser G. C., Thoyer S., Morardet S., Rio P. (2002). Structure and power in multilateral negotiations : An application to French water policy. In Hanemann Michael and Carson Richard (eds), 2002 World Congress of Environmental and Resource Economists, June 24 - 27 2002, Monterey, California , USA, Association of Environmental and Resource Economists (AERE) and European Association of Environmental and Resource Economists (EAERE), 30 pages, available on Internet http://weber.ucsd.edu/~carsonvs/papers/999.pdf, and CD-Rom


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http://weber.ucsd.edu/~carsonvs/papers/999.pdf

Morardet S., Rieu T., Gleyses G. (2001) Instruments de régulation de la demande en eau des agriculteurs et politique agricole commune. Série Irrigation 'WP' 2001-01, communication au colloque PIREE «Les instruments des politiques environnementales», Sophia-Antipolis, 5-6 avril 2001, 23 p.

Thoyer S., Morardet S., Rio P., Simon L., Goodhue R., Rausser G. (2001) A bargaining model to simulate negotiations between water users, Journal of artificial societies and social simulation, http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/4/2/6.html, 2001 ; 31 mars 2001, vol.4, n°2, 22 p.

Morardet S., Gleyses G., Guarrera S. (2000) Impact de la réforme de la PAC sur la demande en eau pour l'irrigation. Rapport pour le Ministère de l'Aménagement du Territoire et de l'Environnement et les Agences de l'Eau, Contrat d'étude AELB 99.00.057, Juillet 2000, 102 p.

Morardet S., Hanot S. (2000) La gestion volumétrique de l'eau en Beauce : impact sur les exploitations agricoles. Rapport final de l'étude AELB n°99.00.031, Agence de l'Eau Loire Bretagne, juin 2000, 78 p..

Faÿsse N., Morardet S. (1999) La mise en place d'une gestion négociée de l'eau en France : l'exemple de la gestion des étiages sur le bassin de l'Adour. 17th international congress on irrigation and drainage, Granada, Spain, 11-19 Septembre 1999, Q49 : Water for agriculture in the next millenium, Vol. - 1F, pp. 29-46

Rinaudo J.D. et Morardet S. (1999) Acceptabilité des réformes de gestion de l'eau d'irrigation : cadre théorique et exemples. Economie Rurale, n°254, pp.36-44

Goodhue R., Morardet S., Rio P. et Thoyer S. (1998) Les formes institutionnelles de la gestion de l’eau en France et en Californie : droits de propriété, décentralisation et délégation. Série Irrigation ‘WP 98-09’, texte de la communication à la session de la Société Française d’Economie Rurale « Irrigation et gestion collective de l’eau en France et dans le Monde », Montpellier, 19-20 novembre 1998, 13 p.

Morardet S., Bosio G., Gleyses G. (1998) Impact de l'irrigation sur l'emploi en France : approche par la méthode de l'équivalent-travail. Série Irrigation ‘WP 98-08’, texte de la communication à la session de printemps de la SFER 'Emploi agricole, emploi rural : ruptures, continuité, innovations', Dijon, France, 16-17 juin 1998, 15 p.

Morardet S., Rio P., Thoyer S., Gleyses G., Claude D. (1998) Les négociations autour de la gestion de l'eau dans le bassin de l'Adour : une approche par la théorie des jeux. . Série Irrigation ‘WP 98-07’, texte de la communication aux Journées de l’Association Française de Science Economique « Economie de l’environnement et des ressources naturelles », Toulouse, 11-12 mai 1998, 12 p.

Axès F., Morardet S. (1995) Economic impact of irrigation on agricultural production : using geographical information system and economic models. in : ALBISU, L. M. and ROMERO, C. (Eds) Environmental and Land Use Issues : an Economic Perspective. Proceedings of the 34th Seminar of the European Association of Agricultural Economists, 7-9/2/94, Zaragoza, Spain, Wissenschaftsverlag Vauk Kiel, 9 p.

Palacio V., Gleyses G., Morardet S. (1995) Typologie d'exploitations et demande en eau d'irrigation. Ingénieries EAT , n°2, juin 1995, pp.39-48

Morardet S. (1995) Economic evaluation of irrigation projects : transfer of methods to INAT in Colombia (Instituto Nacional de Adecuacion de Tierras). Cemagref Irrigation, InterAmerican development Bank, décembre 1995, 61 p. + annexes

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CURRICULUM VITAE

Name : Clifford MUTEROYear of Birth : 1955Nationality : Kenya

Key Qualifications

Dr . Clifford Mutero is a Senior Researcher at the International Water Management Institute (IWMI). He is the Coordinator of the CGIAR-led Systemwide Initiative on Malaria and Agriculture (SIMA) which he helped found in 2000. The initiative is primarily a facilitating program for research and capacity-building and brings together researchers in health and agriculture to fight malaria jointly with the affected communities. Dr. Mutero’s current professional interest is the promotion of transdisciplinary and participatory research approaches in order to contribute to the development of sustainable strategies for improving the health status of disadvantaged communities through epidemiological, environmental and socio-economic interventions. Dr. Mutero has 22 years experience as a researcher in vector-borne diseases including malaria, trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis. He trained for his Masters and PhD degrees at the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), registered with the University of Nairobi, Kenya. He worked as an internationally-recruited researcher at ICIPE from 1987 to 2000. He has conducted extensive research on the ecology and behaviour of key vectors of diseases in Kenya including the Anopheles gambiae complex and several species of the genera Glossina and Phlebotomus. Dr Mutero’s early work focused on the comparative analysis of vector survival, vector feeding behaviour and potential to transmit disease in different ecological settings. As a researcher at ICIPE, Dr. Mutero actively participated in capacity-building activities including: lecturing in insect ecology to PhD students in the African Regional Post graduate Program in Insect Science (ARPPIS, 1986-1994); supervision of PhD students working on the ecology of vectors of malaria and leishmaniases in Kenya (1985-1996); external examiner to MSc and PhD medical entomology students at the University of Nairobi (1990-1996); course lecturer in malaria epidemiology to participants in ICIPE’s international group training courses on components essential for ecologically-sound pest and vector management systems (1985-1988).

Education1978 B.Sc. (Honours), Zoology, University of Nairobi, Kenya. 1982 M.Sc., Medical Entomology, University of Nairobi, Kenya.1986 Ph.D. Medical Entomology, University of Nairobi, Kenya ( with a 9-month attachment at

the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, UK).

Proffesional ExperienceMay 2000 - date: Coordinator, CGIAR-Systemwide Initiative on Malaria and Agriculture (SIMA), International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Africa Regional Office, Pretoria, South Africa (initially based in Nairobi, Kenya). 2001 – 2002 International Water Management Institute (IWMI) Regional Representative for Eastern Africa, Nairobi, Kenya2000 Senior Researcher/Consultant, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) and International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Nairobi, Kenya 1996 – 1999 Research Scientist, Human Health Division, ICIPE, Nairobi1995-1996 Coordinator, EU tsetse project, ICIPE, Tsetse Research Program, Nairobi1993-1995 Research Scientist, Tsetse Research Program, ICIPE, Nairobi 1987 – 1992 Research Scientist, Medical Vectors Research Program, ICIPE, Nairobi1985-1987 Post-doctoral Research Fellow, Medical Vectors Research Program, ICIPE, Nairobi

Professional Affiliations2003-Present Member of Board of Editors, ECOHEALTH Journal 2002-Present Member, Program Advisory Committee (PAC), International Forum on Ecosystem

Approaches to Human Health, IDRC.1995-2000 Member, Society for Vector Ecology (SOVE)1980- Present Member, African Association of Insect Scientists (AAIS)1980-1983 Fellow, Royal Society of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine

Recent Selected Publications


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Mutero, C.M., Kabutha, C., Kimani, V., Kabuage, L., Gitau, G., Ssennyonga, J., Githure, J., Muthami, L., Kaida, A., Musyoka, L., Kiarie, E., Oganda, M. (2004). A transdisciplinary perspective on the links between malaria and agroecosystems in Kenya. Acta Tropica, 89: 171-186.

Mutero, C.M., Ng’ang’a, P.N., Wekoyela, P., Githure, G., Konradsen, F. (2004). Ammonium Sulphate fertiliser increases larval populations of Anopheles arabiensis and culicine mosquitoes in rice fields.

Acta Tropica, 89: 187-192.Konradsen, F., van der Hoek, W., Amerasinghe, F.P., Mutero, C., Boelee, E. (2003). Engineering and

malaria control: Learning from the past 100 years. Acta Tropica, 89: 99-108. Shililu, J.I., Mbogo, C.M., Mutero, C.M., Gunter, J.T., Swalm, C., Regens, J.L., Keating, J., Yan, G.,

Githure, J.I., Beier, J.C. (2003). Spatial distribution of Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles funestus and malaria transmission in Suba District, western Kenya. Insect Sci. Applic. (in press)

Mutero, C. M (2003). Time for more transdisciplinary and participatory research on malaria. Science and Development Network. SciDev.net, 3rd September.

Mutero, C.M. (2002). Health impact assessment of increased irrigation in the Tana River Basin, Kenya. In: The Changing Face of Irrigation in Kenya. Opportunities for Anticipating Change in Eastern and Southern Africa. IWMI Book. pp 211-229.

Blank, H.G., Mutero, C.M., Murray-Rust, H. Eds (2002). The Changing Face of Irrigation in Kenya. Opportunities for Anticipating Change in Eastern and Southern Africa. IWMI Book: ISBN 92-9090-475-5. 329pp.

Kabutha, C., Mutero, C.M., (2002). From government to farmer-managed small-holder rice schemes: The case of Mwea irrigation scheme. The Changing Face of Irrigation in Kenya. Opportunities for Anticipating Change in Eastern and Southern Africa. IWMI Book. pp191-210.

Sithanantham, S., Seif AA., Ssennonga J., Matoka C., Mutero C. (2002). Integrated pest management (IPM) issues in irrigated agriculture: Current initiatives and future needs to promote IPM adoption by smallholder farmers in Eastern Africa. In: The Changing Face of Irrigation in Kenya. Opportunities for Anticipating Change in Eastern and Southern Africa. IWMI Book. pp 231-261.

Mutero, C.M., Blank, H., Konradsen, W., van der Hoek, W. (2000) Water management for controlling the breeding of Anopheles mosquitoes in rice irrigation schemes in Kenya Acta Tropica 76, 253-263.

Mutero, C., Mosha, F., Odulaja, A., Knols, B. & Bos, R. (1999). Livestock management and malaria prevention in irrigation schemes. Parasit. Today 15, 394-395.

Minakawa, N. M., Mutero, C., Githure, J.I., Beier, J.C., & Yan, G. (1999). Spatial distribution and habitat characterization of anopheline mosquito larvae in western Kenya. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 61, 1010-1016.

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CURRICULUM VITAE

Name : PedenFirst name : DonYear of birth : 1946Nationality : Canadian

Key Qualifications

Systems ecologist specializing in integrated natural resource management (INRM) with strengths in livestock, wildlife and agroforestry and their linkages to public health. Experience comes from diverse long-term assignments in Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia and Canada and short-term ones in ten other countries. Since 2001 serving as leader of ILRI’s operating project on Agroecosystem Health and Integrated Natural Resources Management in Ethiopia and since March 2002 as interim country director. Duties included taking the lead on behalf of ILRI to develop a new research area and to build essential partnerships to explicitly understand livestock-water interactions in catchments and river basins. From 1996 to 2001, served as Senior Program Specialist at IDRC, Ottawa, took a lead role in supporting research on agro-ecosystem approaches to human health, and managed ecohealth projects with ICRAF, CIAT, CIP, IWMI, ILRI, IITA, CIFOR, and ICIPE among others. Contributed to the formation of the CGIAR System-wide Initiative on Malaria and Agriculture (SIMA) and currently serve on its Steering Committee. From 1989 to 1996, coordinated ICRAF’s agroforestry programs in Uganda and helped establish 10 women’s agroforestry groups. Prior to 1989 contributed to the establishment of a Kenyan livestock and wildlife census program and a closely linked inventory program for on-farm maize production and conducted wildlife research in Western Canada. These experiences collectively provided a broad based understanding of interactions among livestock, land management, aquatic systems and human health.

Education1972 Ph.D. Range Science (System Ecology), Colorado State University, USA1968 M.Sc. Ecology. Aberdeen University, UK1967 B.Sc. Plant Ecology, University of Victoria, Canada

Positions Held2001 – present Program Manager, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI-Ethiopia)

Developing projects and research initiatives relating to livestock management in the context of watershed management.

Interim Resident Directory for ILRI in Ethiopia – since March 2001. Development of new research on livestock-water interactions. Representing ILRI on the System Wide Initiative on Malaria and Agriculture.

1999-2002 Senior Program Specialist, IDRC, Ottawa, Canada Member of the People, Land and Water Program Initiative focusing on improved land

and water management in Sub-Saharan Africa. This included oversight of a major IUCN project on “assessing progress toward sustainable development”

Member of the Ecohealth Program Initiative focused on improving public health as an output of agriculture production. This included management of projects related to agriculture and water in Brazil, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Sri Lanka.

1989-1996 Senior Scientist, ICRAF, UgandaUgandan Coordinator of the Agroforestry Research Network for East Africa Design and implementation of agroforestry research in the Ugandan highlands. Supervision of students. Initiation of participatory agroforestry R&D with emphasis on encouraging women in

agroforestry.

1986-1989 Consultant, based in British Columbia, CanadaSpecializing in GIS application to INRM development problems. Beta testing GIS software (ARC/INF) for ESRI, California Conducted short term contractual assignments for the World Bank in Somalia, CIDA

in Zimbabwe, and the Government of British Columbia and the Resort Municipality of Whistler.

1978-1986 Senior Systems Ecologist, Kenya Rangeland Ecological Monitoring Unit

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Nairobi, Kenya Design and implementation of nation-wide livestock and wildlife inventories. Training of students. Establishment of on-farm crop inventories using remote sensing techniques.


Peden D, Tadesse, G and Mammo M. 2003. Improving the water productivity of livestock: An opportunity for poverty reduction. In Integrated water and land management research and capacity building priorities for Ethiopia. Proceedings of a MoWR/EARO/IWMI/ILRI workshop held at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 2-4 December 2002. pp: 57-65.

ILEA, 2002. Ecosystem Disruption and Human Health. Summary report of a consultation hosted by Canada’s International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), November 14-17, 1999. Special supplement to LEISA magazine. [Peden, D, Scientific Advisor and contributing author]

Peden, D. 1998. Agroecosystems management for improved human health: applying principles of integrated pest management to people. Proc. Annual Meeting of the Canadian Society of Animal Science, July 5-8, 1998, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

Li Pun, H., Mwendera, EJ, Mares, V, Hart, B, Steinfield, H., Peden, D., Sere, C., and de Hann, C. 1998. Global consultation on balancing livestock, environment and human needs. In Livestock and the Environment (ed. AJ Nell). Wageningen: International Agricultural Centre. pp:41-62. (This is an output of the LAC-PLAW project for an electronic conference on environment and development .)

152

CURRICULUM VITAE

Name : Dr. F.W.T. Penning de VriesFirst Name : FritsYear of Birth : 1946Nationality : Netherlands

Key Qualifications

Systems research, production ecology, research management, science editor

Education1973 PhD Agriculture, Agricultural University in The Netherlands1969 Drs Biology, Catholic University in The Netherlands

Professional Experience [last 10 years, starting with current]January 2003 - current

Theme leader, International Water Management Institute. Location: South Africa Regional Office in Pretoria, South Africa.

April 2001 – Dec 2002

Theme Leader, International Water Management Institute. Location: South East Asia Regional Office in Bangkok, Thailand

1997 – March 2001

Director of Research, International Board for Soil Research and Management. Location: Bangkok, Thailand

1996 - 1997 Program Leader “Sustainable food production systems in developing countries” of Department Agricultural Research (DLO). Location: Wageningen, Netherlands

1991-1996 Head Department Agrosystems Research, DLO-Research Institute for Agrobiology and Soil Fertility (AD-DLO) with about 25 scientists. Location: Wageningen, Netherlands

Professional Affiliations [last 10 years, starting with most recent]2000- Member Comite de Lecture, Institut du Sahel (INSAH).2000- Member Conseil Pole Regionale de Recherche Appliquee au Developpement des

Savanes d’Afrique Centrale (PRASAC).2000- Member editorial board Journal Agricultural Systems.1999-2000 Member WARDA external Review team.1996-1999 Member Conseil Scientifique, Centre de Cooperation International en Recherche

Agronomique pour le Development (CIRAD) France.1996-1997 Executive Secretary 3rd International Crop Science Congress.1994 Chair organizing committee CGIAR symposium “Ecoregional Approaches for

Agricultural Development”, held in ISNAR, The Hague.1994-Current Founding member and Board member International Consortium for Application of

Systems approaches in Agriculture (ICASA).

Main recent publications (refereed):Penning de Vries, F.W.T, H. Acquai, D. Molden, S. Scherr, C. Valentin and O. Cofie, 2002. Integrated Land

and Water Management for Food and Environmental Security. Comprehensive Assessment Research Report 1, International Water Management Institute, Sri Lanka and Global Environmental Facility, Washington. (70 pp)

Jianbo, Lu, Wang Zhaoqian and F.W.T. Penning de Vries. 2002. Application of interactive multiple goal programming for red soil watershed development: a case study of Qingshishan watershed. Agricultural Systems 73, 313-324.

Penning de Vries, F.W.T. 2001. Food security – we are losing ground fast. Pp 1-14 in Crop Science: Progress and Prospects. J. Nosberger, H.H. Geiger and P.C. Struik (Eds). CABI, Wallingford, UK. (398 pp)

Penning de Vries, F.W.T. 2001. Land degradation and restoration: research needs. Pp 441-449 in: Bridges, M, I. Hannam, R. Oldeman, F.W.T. Penning de Vries, S. Scherr and S. Sombanpanit (Eds), 2001. Response to land degradation. Oxford, New Delhi, India (500 pp).

Drechsel, P., D. Kunze and F.W.T. Penning de Vries, 2001. Soil nutrient depletion and population growth in sub-saharan Africa: a Malthusian nexus? Population and environment, 22 (4), 411-423.

Faerge J., J. Magid and F.W.T. Penning de Vries, 2001. Urban nutrient balance for Bangkok. Ecological modelling 139 (1), 63-74.

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Penning de Vries, F.W.T. 1999. Land degradation reduces maximum food production in Asia. Pp 17-24 in: World Food Security. T. Horie etal. (Eds). Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.

Penning de Vries, F. Agus and J. Kerr (Eds). 1998. Soil Erosion at multiple scales. Principles and methods for assessing causes and impacts. CABI and IBSRAM, London, UK. (390 pp).

Penning de Vries, F.W.T., R. Rabbinge and J.J.R. Groot, 1997. Potential and attainable food production and food security in different regions. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B, 352, 917-928.

Penning de Vries, F.W.T., H. van Keulen and J.C. Luyten, 1996. The role of soil science in estimating global food security in 2040. Pp 17-35 in: The Role of Soil Science in Interdisciplinary Research. R.J. Wagenet and J. Bouma (Eds.). Soil Science Society of America and American Society of Agronomy Special Publication no 45 (143 pp).

Penning de Vries F.W.T., H. van Keulen and R. Rabbinge. 1995. Natural resources and limits of food production in 2040. Pp 65-87 in: Eco-regional approaches for sustainable land use and food production. J. Bouma, A. Kuyvenhoven, B.A.M. Bouman, J.C. Luyten and H.G. Zandstra (Eds). Kluwer Academic Press, Dordrecht, Netherlands.

Selvarajan M., A.K. Bhattacharya and F.W.T. Penning de Vries. 1995. Combined use of watershed, aquifer and crop simulation models to evaluate groundwater recharge through percolation ponds. Agricultural Systems. 47, 1-24

Kropff, M.J., F.W.T. Penning de Vries and P.S. Teng. 1994. Capacity building and human resource development for applying systems analysis in rice research. Pp 323-340 in: Opportunities, use and transfer of systems research methods in agriculture to developing countries. Goldsworthy, P. and F.W.T. Penning de Vries (Eds). Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands.

Penning de Vries, F.W.T. 1993. Rice production and Climate Change. Pp 175-190 in: Systems Approaches for Agricultural Development. F.W.T. Penning de Vries, P.S. Teng and K. Metselaar (Eds). Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands.

Keulen, H. van, and F.W.T. Penning de Vries. 1993. Farming under uncertainty: terminology and techniques. Pp 139-144 in: International Crop Science Congress, CSSA, Madison, USA.

Kropff, M.J., K.G. Cassman, F.W.T. Penning de Vries and H.H. van Laar. 1993. Increasing the yield plateau in rice and the role of global climate change. Journal Agricultural Meteorology 48 (5), 795-798.

Timsina, J., F.W.T. Penning de Vries and D.P. Garrity. 1993. Cowpea production in rice-based cropping systems of the Philippines: extrapolation by simulation. Agricultural Systems 42, 359-381.

154

CURRICULUM VITAE

NameFirst name

: Sally: Hilmy

Year of birth : 1955Nationality : Sri Lankan

Summary of Qualifications & ExperienceHilmy Sally has a Bachelors degree in Civil Engineering and Masters and Doctoral degrees in Water Resources Development. He has over twenty years experience in water resources and irrigation research and development in developing countries in Africa (Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania), and Asia (India, Iran, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand).

He has accumulated extensive professional experience in program and project management related to irrigation and water management research, training, capacity building, and information dissemination. He oversaw IWMI's West Africa Regional Representation between 1991 & 1998 and has managed multidisciplinary and multicultural research projects on water productivity and water allocation, irrigation performance, and smallholder water management systems. He has designed and implemented a variety of professional development activities, including training courses, fellowships (supervision of over 20 student research topics, at undergraduate and post-graduate levels), seminars, workshops, and study tours aimed at farmers, field level personnel, researchers and senior government agency staff. He has an aptitude for integrating cross-cutting technical, organizational, institutional, and environmental issues in problem-solving and is able to interact effectively with national and international partners, including donors, government officials, farmers, and other stakeholders. He has been attached to the IWMI Africa Regional Office in Pretoria since September 2001. He possesses excellent oral and written communication skills in English and French and has authored or co-authored over 40 publications in both languages.

Education1973-1977 B.Sc. Civil Engineering (Honours), University of Sri Lanka.

1978-1980 Master of Engineering, Water Resources Development, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand

1980-1981 French language studies at Vichy, France and Ecole nationale des travaux publics de l’Etat (ENTPE), Lyon, France

1981-1982 Diplôme d'Etudes Approfondies (Advanced Studies Diploma) in Fluid Mechanics, Institut National Polytechnique-Institut de Mécanique des Fluides, Toulouse, France.

1982-1985 Docteur-Ingénieur, Institut National Polytechnique-Institut de Mécanique des Fluides, Toulouse, France.

Positions HeldAugust 2001 to date

Senior Researcher, Regional Office for Africa, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Pretoria, South Africa.

July 1999 to August 2001

Irrigation and Water Management Specialist, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Colombo, Sri Lanka

February 1999 to June 1999

Consultant, Sri Lanka Chapter of the Global Water Partnership (GWP), Colombo, Sri Lanka

September 1998 to June 1999

Consultant, International Water Management Institute (IWMI), IWMI-Headquarters, Colombo, Sri Lanka

August 1997 to July 1998

Team Leader, Niger country program, International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI), Niamey, Niger.

April 1996 toJuly 1998

Regional Representative for West Africa, International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

April 1991 toJuly 1998

Team Leader, Burkina Faso country program, International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

February 1988 to March 1991

Irrigation Management and Engineering Specialist, International Irrigation Management Institute, IIMI Headquarters, Sri Lanka

October 1985 toNovember 1987

Post-Doctoral Fellow, International Irrigation Management Institute, IIMI Headquarters, Sri Lanka

September 1981 to July 1985

Doctoral student, Institut National Polytechnique-Institut de Mécanique des Fluides, Toulouse, France

February 1983 toJune 1983

Teaching Assistant, Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France

December 1977 Civil Engineer, State Engineering Corporation, Sri Lanka, and Civil Engineer, Central


155

to September 1978

Engineering Consultancy Bureau, Sri Lanka.

Selected Recent PublicationsKamara, A. B. and Sally, H. (accepted): Water management options for food security in South Africa: Scenarios, simulations & policy implications. Development Southern Africa Journal.

Sally, Hilmy; Arlene Inocencio, and Douglas Merrey. 2003. Agricultural land and water management for poverty reduction and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa: Setting the research agenda. African Water Journal. p. 20-29, UN-Water/Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. ISBN: 92-1-125-089-7.

Sally, Hilmy. 2003. Advances in integrated water resources management research in agriculture. In McCornick, P.G., Kamara, A.B., and Tadasse, G. (eds.) Integrated Water & Land anagement Research and Capacity Building Priorities for Ethiopia. Proceedings of a MWR/EARO/IWMI/ ILRI international workshop, Addis Ababa, 2-4 December 2002, pp. 46-56.

Levite, Hervé, Hilmy Sally and Julien Cour. 2003. Testing water demand management scenarios in a water-stressed basin in South Africa: Application of the WEAP model, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 28, 779-786.

Kamara, Abdul and Hilmy Sally. 2003. Water for Food, Livelihoods and Nature: Simulations for Policy Dialogue in South Africa. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 28, 1085-1094, Elsevier.

Sakthivadivel, R. and Hilmy Sally. 2003. Irrigation management for the tropics. In Encyclopedia of Water Science; p. 483 - 489; Marcel Dekker, Inc. NY.

Inocencio. A.; H. Sally and D. J. Merrey. 2003. Innovative approaches to agricultural water use for improving food security in sub-Saharan africa. Working Paper 55, Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute .

Levite Hervé and Hilmy Sally. 2002. Linkages between productivity and equitable allocation of water. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 27, 825-830.

Sally, Hilmy and Charles Abernethy. (Eds.). 2002. Private Irrigation in sub-Saharan Africa. IWMI, FAO and CTA-EU. ISBN: 92-9090-494-1.

Sally, Hilmy. 2002. Performance and self-management of small-scale reservoir-based irrigation schemes in Burkina Faso, Proceedings, 18th ICID Congress, Montreal, Canada, 21-28 July 2002.

Sally, Hilmy. 2002. Institutional and financial considerations for self-managed irrigated agriculture: Examples from Burkina Faso and Niger. In Hilmy Sally and Charles Abernethy (eds.). Private Irrigation in sub-Saharan Africa. IWMI, FAO and CTA-EU.

Sakthivadivel, R., D. J. Molden, Hilmy Sally, Li Yuanhua and Dong Bin. 2001. Water Saving Techniques in Rice Irrigation: A Review of AWDI Practices, Proceedings of the 1 st Asian regional conference of ICID, Seoul, Korea, September 2001.

Sally, H., H. Murray-Rust, A.R. Mamanpoush, M. Akbari. 2001. Water supply and demand in four major irrigation systems in the Zayandeh Rud Basin, Iran. IAERI-IWMI Research Reports 8.

Badiger, S., R. Sakthivadivel, N. Aloysius, N, and H. Sally. 2001. Preliminary assessment of a traditional approach to rainwater harvesting and artificial recharging of groundwater in Alwar District, Rajasthan In IWMI; ICAR; CSSRI. ICAR-IWMI ground water policy initiative - 2001: Policy dialogue on groundwater management, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, India, 6-7 November 2001. pp. 83-98.

Abernethy, C.L and M.H Sally. 2000. Experiences of some government-sponsored organizations of irrigators in Niger and Burkina Faso, West Africa. Journal of Applied Irrigation Science, 35(2):177-205, ISSN 0049-8602

Abernethy, Charles, Hilmy Sally, Kurt Lonsway and Chégou Maman. 2000. Farmer-based financing of operations in the Niger valley irrigation schemes, Research Report 37, IWMI, Colombo, v + 36 pp. ISBN 92-9090-397-X

Sally, Hilmy. 2000. Agriculture irriguée ou agriculture de crue et de décrue (Irrigated agriculture and flood recession agriculture). In Vers une gestion durable des plaines d'inondation Sahéliennes (Towards sustainable management of Sahelian floodplains), IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. pp. 81-84. ISBN : 2-8317-0494-4.

Sally, Hilmy, R. Sakthivadivel, and David Molden. 2000. More crop per drop: Considerations for precision irrigation in a basin context. Proceedings of the 6 th International Micro-Irrigation Congress Micro 2000, Cape Town, South Africa, 22-27 October 2000.

156

CURRICULUM VITAE

Name : SeshokaFirst name : JetrickYear of birth : 30 October 1977Nationality : South African

Key Qualifications

My stay with International Water Management Institute (IWMI) over two years has been the beginning of the learning process and provides me with valuable experience with regard to report writing, case study writing, data management, working with mutli-disciplinary team, familiarize with government policies and computer literacy. The field trips with researchers and internship students have developed my knowledge of the Olifants River Basin with regard to the water users, potential and development constraints of the Basin. Working closely with small-scale during field visits has provides me with good understanding their potential and constraints. My involvement in the Institutional project (Water User Associations) has enhance my ability to be independent and self-confident. My independent has been demonstrated by writing a case study and co-author of IWMI Working Papers and being exposed to present papers in an International Symposium has enhance my confident.

Masters degree in Agricultural Economics with research background, knowledge of macro-micro economics, marketing, agric-business and substantial experience with small-scale (emerging) farmers. During my stay at the University I was involved in various projects that involves small-scale farmers, the major projects are: 1) Masters thesis, I spent almost six month on the field working with small-scale, the topic entitled ‘Competitiveness of rural agricultural sector of Limpopo Province: The case study of small-scale farmers in the former Districts of Nebo and Botlokwa”; 2) Training facilitator for the Land Reform Beneficiaries, with Limpopo Province Department Of Land jointly with University of the North; and 3) Data collection for various research projects; “Household food security and food deregulation survey” for National Agricultural Marketing Council and “The effects of markets orientation on income and food security of small-scale irrigation farmers in South Africa’s Limpopo Province”, for University of the North.

The knowledge and experience acquired during my stay at the University and IWMI has developed my potential to become competent and enhancing my ability to work under pressure, to work with multi-disciplinary team, computer literacy, writing reports and communicate with people at different age, irrespective of race, gender and religion.

Education1999-200119981995-19971994

Other Certificates1999

2002

Masters in Agricultural Economics, University of the North, Sovenga, South AfricaB. Agricultural Management Honours in Agricultural Economics, University of the NorthB. Agricultural Management, University of the North, Completed Matric with exemption

Recognition of participation: Farming System Research/Extension and Impact Assessment Short Course, University of the North, South AfricaShort Course on Introduction to ArcView GIS with GIMS Training Schedule. Midrand, South Africa

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Professional ExperienceFull time workNov 22, 2001 -dateConsulting work2001

1999-2001

2000

2001

Research Assistant, International Water Management Institute-Africa Office, Pretoria, South Africa

Tutor, Offered course on Farm Management for first year students with Department of Agricultural Economics, University of the North. Duration of three monthStudent Assistant with Department of Agricultural Economics, University of the North. Major duties were to assist students with their tutorials problems in class, invigilating test and training third year students with computer skills (MS Word, Corel Word-Perfect and SPSS)Enumerator (Data collection) for National Agricultural Marketing Council jointly with University of the North. Research topic: Household food security and food deregulation survey.Training Facilitator, for Department of Land Affairs Jointly with University of the North. Major duties were to train beneficiaries of Land Reform (small-scale farmers), on business plan, record keeping, marketing, poultry management, and vegetables and fruit production.

Selected Papers

Faysse, N., Seshoka, J. and De Lange, W. 2003. Transformation of Irrigation Boards into Water User Associations in South Africa. IWMI Working Paper

Faysse, N., Seshoka, J. and Ladki, M. 2003 Possible impacts of the transformation of water infrastructure on water productive use at household level. IWMI Working Paper

McCartney, M., Yawson, D., Magagula, T.F. and Seshoka, J.2004 Hydrology review of the Olifants River Catchments. Draft report for IWMI Working Paper

Seshoka, J. 2003 Case study of the Letaba Water Users Association, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Presented at IWMI-SA Seminar

Seshoka, J. and Anim F.D.K. 2002 Competitiveness of rural agricultural sector in Limpopo Province: The case study of small-

scale farmers in the former districts of Nebo and Botlokwa. Draft report for AGRIKON Journal.

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SUMMARY CURRICULUM VITAE

Name : Van KoppenFirst Name : BarbaraYear of Birth : 1955Nationality : Dutch

Key Qualifications

Research design and coordination and development intervention with grassroots poor women and men on integrated water management institutions and technologies in rural Africa and Asia. Capacity building and training of Ph.D. and M.Sc students and professionals. Policy analysis and coordination of national and international policy dialogue. Communication skills in multi-cultural and multi-disciplinary teams. Author of over 30 international publications.

Education1998 Ph.D. Poverty, gender and water management in wetlands in Burkina Faso and

groundwater irrigation in Bangladesh. Wageningen University and Research Centre

1982 M.Sc. Rural Sociology Wageningen University and Research Centre

Professional Experience1998 - present Senior Researcher International Water Management Institute

1998-2001: in Head Quarters, Colombo, Sri Lanka.2001-present: in Africa Regional Office, Pretoria, South Africa

1990 - 1998 Lecturer / Researcher Department of Irrigation and Soil and Water Conservation, Wageningen University and Research Centre, the Netherlands

1988-1990 Coordinator Section Promotion Féminine Burkina Faso, Project Sensibilisation et Formation des Paysans autour des Barrages, SNV Netherlands Development Organization

1985-1988 Project Leader Burkina Faso, Project Promotion Féminine dans la Province de la Comoé, Ministère de l’Agriculture et d’Elevage & SNV Netherlands Development Organization

1982-1985 Coordinator Farm Women Group Farmers Group Wageningen, the Netherlands

Professional Affiliations2001-present Global Water Partnership Member Steering Committee


Moriarty, Patrick, John Butterworth, and Barbara van Koppen (eds). 2003. Beyond Domestic. Case studies on poverty and productive uses of water at the household level. IRC Technical Papers Series 41. Delft: IRC, NRI,and IWMI.

Schreiner, Barbara, and Barbara van Koppen. 2003. Policy and Law for addressing poverty, race, and gender in the water sector: the Case of South Africa. Water Policy. Volume 5, Issue 5.

Van Koppen, Barbara. 2002. A Gender Performance Indicator for Irrigation: concepts, tools, and applications. Research Report 59. Colombo: International Water Management Institute

Shah, Tushaar, Barbara van Koppen, Doug Merrey, Marna de Lange, and Madar Samad. 2002. Institutional Alternatives in African Smallholder Irrigation: Lessons from International Experience with Irrigation Management Transfer. IWMI Research Report 60. Colombo: International Water Management Institute

Van Koppen, Barbara, R. Parthasarathy, and Constantina Safiliou. 2002. Poverty Dimensions of Irrigation Management Transfer in Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat, India, IWMI Research Report 61. Colombo: International Water Management Institute

159

Van Koppen, Barbara. 2002. Water Reform in Sub-Saharan Africa.: What is the difference? Proceedings Third WaterNet/WARFSA Symposium Integrating water supply and demand for sustainable use of water resources. 30 and 31 October 2002. Dar es Salaam: Waternet, WARFSA, and University of Dar es Salaam.

Schreiner, Barbara, and Barbara van Koppen. 2002. Catchment Management Agencies for Poverty Eradication in South Africa. Journal: Physics and Chemistry of the Earth. Devon: Elsevier Publishers

Van Koppen, Barbara, Nitish Jha, and Doug Merrey. 2002. Redressing racial inequities through water law in South Africa: old contradictions revisited? Draft. Research Paper Comprehensive Assessment. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Comprehensive Assessment

Schreiner, Barbara, Barbara van Koppen, and Tshepo Khumbane. 2002. From bucket to basin: a new paradigm for water management, poverty eradication, and gender equity. In 2002 Turton and Henwood (eds) Hydropolitics in and the developing world: a Southern African perspective. Pretoria: African Water Issues Research Unit. Center of International Politics. University of Pretoria pp 127 – 140

Van Koppen, Barbara. Women and Water Rights. In: Quisumbing, Agnes, and Ruth Meinzen-Dick (eds). 2001 Empowering Women to Achieve Food Security. Focus 2020 – 6. IFPRI Policy Briefs. Washington: IFPRI

Van Koppen, Barbara. 2001. Gender in integrated water management: an analysis of variation. Natural Resources Forum 25 (2001) 299-312. United Nations. Elsevier Science Ltd.

Van Koppen, Barbara. 2000. Gendered water and land rights in construction: Rice valley improvement in Burkina Faso. In: Bruns, Bryan, and Ruth Meinzen-Dick (eds). Negotiating water rights. New Delhi: SAGE

Van Koppen, Barbara. 2000. Gender and Poverty Dimensions of Irrigation. Techniques for Technical People. Key Note Address. Proceedings 6th International Micro-Irrigation 2000 Congress. Cape Town, 24 October 2000

Van Koppen, Barbara. 1999. Targeting irrigation support to poor women and men. International Journal of Water Resources Development. Vol. 15. Numbers 1&2. Pages 121-140. Hants, UK: Carfax Publishing, Taylor and Francis Ltd

Van Koppen, Barbara. 1999. Sharing the last drop: Water scarcity, irrigation, and gendered poverty eradication. Gatekeeper Series no. 85. International Institute for Environment and Development. Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Livelihoods Program. London: International Institute for Environment and Development

Van Koppen, Barbara. 1998. Water rights and poverty alleviation: Inclusion and exclusion of resource-poor women and men as right holders in externally supported irrigation development. In: Merrey, Douglas J., and Shirish Baviskar (eds). Gender analysis and reform of irrigation management: concepts, cases and gaps in knowledge. Proceedings of the Workshop on Gender and Water. September 1997. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Irrigation Management Institute

Van Koppen, Barbara. 1998. Water rights, gender, and poverty alleviation. Inclusion and exclusion of women and men smallholders in public irrigation infrastructure development. Agriculture and Human Values. Volume 15, No. 4 – December 1998. Pages 361-374. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers

Van Koppen, Barbara. 1998. More jobs per drop: targeting irrigation to poor women and men. Ph.D. Thesis Wageningen Agricultural University. Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute

Von Benda-Beckmann, Keebet, Mirjam de Bruijn, Han van Dijk, Gerti Hesseling, Barbara van Koppen, and Lyda Res. 1997. Rights of women to the natural resources land and water. Netherlands Development Assistance. The Hague: Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Van Koppen, Barbara, and Simeen Mahmud. 1996. Women and water-pumps: The impact of participation in irrigation groups on women’s status. London: Intermediate Technology Publications

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Appendices.doc

Documents

redressing

van der hoek

penning de

inland valley

rigorous generic

sugar cane

wider collaborative

marna de lange