Anxhela s excellent_revision_notes_for_beliefs

TOPIC 1 – What is Religion

WHAT IS RELIGION

Substantive definition:

•Focus – content/substance of religious belief (belief in God - supernatural). •Weber – belief in a superior/supernatural above nature, cant be explained scientifically. •No room for religions that don't believe in God. (accused western biased – don't include

Buddhism)

Functional Definition

•Focus – social or psychological functions it performs. •Durkheim – define in terms of the contributions it makes to social integration rather than belief in god/supernatural. •Yinger – looks at functions it performs for individual – answering ‘ultimate question’. •Adv: inclusive (allows range of beliefs/practices, no biased against non western religions that don't believe in god)

Social Constructionist Definition

•Interpertivist approach – focus how people themselves define religion – believe its impossible to find single definition of all religions. •Interested in how definitions are constructed, challenged and fought over.•Aldridge – shows scientology for its followers is a religion – can define it, feel passionately about it. •Inclusive•Makes it impossible to generalize about the nature of religion – people have very different views about religion.

Functionalist

•See society as system – interrelated parts, value consensus makes social order possible. An organism with basic needs it must meet in order to survive – met by different institutions.•Basic need: social order/solidarity so that its members cooperate.

-Durkheim on Religion religion – creates + maintains value consensus, order and solidarity.

-Sacred and Profane

•R involves rituals/practices in relation to the sacred – collective (performed by groups) •When people worship sacred symbols they worship society itself. •Sacred symbols unites people from all religions – as perform the essential function of uniting believers into single moral community.

-Totemism •D believes essence of all religions could be found by studying its simplest form - clan society. •Used study Australian aboriginals , involved clans of kin coming together periodically to perform rituals involving worship of a sacred totem. (clans emblem e.g. Animal or plant that symbolises the clans origins + identity. Totem rituals

Set apart and forbidden, inspire feelings of awe, fear, wonder.

Things with no special significance, ordinary.

The collective consciousness•D - sacred symbols rep collective consciousness – shared norms/values. •Rituals binds individuals together – part of a single community, makes us feel part of something greater than ourselves - motivates us to overcome obstacles which would otherwise defeat us.

Cognitive functions•D – source of our cognitive capacities.•To share thoughts we need to use same category as others.•Religion is the origin of concepts.

Criticisms•D theory may be better applied to small scale societies, harder to apply it to larger societies were 2 or more religions may be in conflict. •Mestrovic – ideas cant be applied to contemporary society – increased diversity has fragmented collective consciousness – no longer single shared value system for religion to reinforce postmodernism.

Psychological functions•Malinowski helps people cope with emotional stress that would undermine social solidarity.•Lagoon fishing – safe/predictable– no ritual needed•Ocean fishing – dangerous/uncertain – ritual needed.•Gives people sense of control, eases tension gives confidence – reinforce group solidarity. •Death/birth /puberty/marriage = major changes in social groups – religion helps minimise disruption. E.g. Funerals reinforce feeling of solidarity amongst survivors. (death main reason).

Parsons: Values & Meaning•Religion helps ppl cope with unfortunate events. •Creates – legitimise societies central values (making them sacred) •Primary source of meaning – answers the ultimate question. If life meaningless might undermine our commitment to societies values.

Civil religionBellah – how religion integrates socially in a way individual religion cannot. American civil religion involves loyalty to the nation state & belief in god, both equated with being American.

EvaluationToo much emphasis on social nature of religion & positive functions it performs – neglects negative aspects – e.g. Religion as source of oppression poor/women. Ignores religion as a source of division/conflict – where there's religious pluralism – hard to see how it can untie people and promote integration.

Marxist

•Sees society as divided into 2 classes – one which exploits the labour of the other, capitalist class owns the means of production. •Always potential for class conflict, Marx predicts WC would ultimately become conscious of their exploitation + unite to overthrow capitalism. •Marxist see religion as a feature of a class divided society – no need for religion in a classless society.

Religion as a ideology •A belief system, distorts reality to serve interests of capitalist class. •Argues class controls economic production + production + distribution of ideas in society through church, education, media.•Marx sees religion as ideological weapon used by the ruling class to legitimate the suffering of the poor as something inevitable and god given. •Misleads them – think suffering is virtuous and that they would be favoured in the afterlife. E.g. Camel ting•This Creates false consciousness – prevents poor from rebelling. •Lenln – describes ‘spiritual gin’ confusing them & keeping them in their place.

Religion & Alienation•Under capitalism workers alienated - don't own what they produce, no control over production process, no freedom to express true nature as creative beings.•Religion = Opiate to dull pain of exploitation. •Religion acts as an ideology – legitimises the suffering of the poor + privileges of ruling class.

Evaluation •Ignores positive functions of religion e.g. Psychological adjustment to misfortune.•Neo-Marxist see certain forms of religion assisting development of class consciousness. •Althusser rejects concept of alienation as unscientific & based on romantic idea that human being have a ‘true-self’.•Religion doesn't function effectively as ideology to control the population e.g. Abercrombie & Turner argue – pre-capitalist society – while Christianity was a major element of ruling class ideology had limited impact on peasantry.

Feminism

See society as patriarchal – religion acts as a patriarchal ideology that legitimises female subordination.

Evidence of patriarchy•Mainly men in religious organisations – despite fact women participate more. E.g. Catholicism forbid women priests.•Places of worship – segregated , men taking central seating women NOT. Participation restricted (unclean, preg, menstr) •In sacred texts, women mainly doings of men. Stories reflect anti-female stereotypes e.g. Eve. •Religious laws given women fewer rights than men, divorce, marriage, decision making, dress code. Religious influence of cultural norms may also lead to unequal treatment e.g. Genital mutilation/punishment for sexual transgression, reproductive role, catholic no contraception.

Nawal el Saadawi argues, religions not direct cause of their subordination, rather its the patriarchal forms of society coming in existence, men reinterpreted religious beliefs in ways that favoured patriarchy.

•Karen Armstrong argues that early religions placed women at centre – e.g. Earth mother goddesses, fertility cults and female priests found in middle east until 6,000 years ago.

Woodhead : Religious Feminism•Woodhead – not true of all religions, women use religion to gain freedom and respect (Hijab – education/work) - symbol of liberation allows them to enter the public sphere without loosing culture/History.

•Evangelical belief that men should respect women can tell them to practice what they preach.•Church of England permits women priests. (1/5)

TOPIC 2 – Religious & Social Change

Religion & Social Change

Religions conservative Beliefs•Many have conservative beliefs bout moral issues – oppose change (e.g. Freedom in personal/sexual matters – Catholics, divorce, abortion, contraception, gays) •Most uphold family values – favouring traditional patriarchal domestic division. (e.g. Church of England, man – head of family ..love, honour, obey, Hinduism – endorse male domestic authority & arranged marriages. Religions Conservative Functions•Contributes to social stability•Religion & consensus functionalist see religion as a conservative force functions to maintain social stability – prevents disintegration. •promotes social solidarity – value consensus, reduces likelihood society will collapse by individuals perusing own selfish interests.•Contrast Marxist & Feminists see it as an ideology – supports existing social structures – acts as means for social control, creating stability in interest of the powerful – maintaining status quo by preventing less powerful from changing things.

Religion & Capitalism •Marx – conservative ideology – prevents social change by legitimising/ disguising exploitation & inequality – creating false consciousness in WC – prevents revolution.

Religion & Patriarchy •Feminist see religion as conservative force – acts as an ideology that legitimises patriarchal power and maintains women's subordination in the family & wider society.

Religion as a Conservative Force

•Conservative in sense of being

traditional (defending traditional

customs, institutions, moral views roles)

•Functions to preserve things as they are,

stabilises society maintains status quo.

Weber: Religion as a force for Change

•Religious belief in Calvinism (form of

Protestantism) helped to bring about major social

change (capitalism). •Past society saw capitalism as – greed for wealth.

•Modern capitalism unique – systematic, efficient

pursuit of profit for its own sake – rather than

consumption (spirit of Capitalism) - this spirit

unconsciously similar to Calvinists beliefs &

attitudes.

Hinduism & Confucianism•Weber argued Calvinists was one of many causes of modern capitalism (natural resources, trade, a money economy, towns, cities, system of law..needed) •Notes – other societies had higher level of economic development 16-17th Cent, but still failed to develop Capitalism. •Ancient China & India materially more advance than Europe – capitalism failed – lack of religious belief.

Evaluation•Disagrees with Marx , saying material/economic factors not enough to bring capitalism. •Specific cultural factors needed (values of Calvinism) •Kautsky argues Weber over estimates role of ideas – underestimates economic factors. •Tawney argues technological change not religion caused C. •C didn't develop in every place where was Calvinists (Scotland e.g.) Marshall – was lack of investment capital & skilled labour(support Web material + cultural factors needed)

Calvinist BeliefsPredestination: God predetermined which souls would be saved before even birth – ppl cant do anything about this. Divine transcendence: no human could claim to know gods will (other than bible) making them fell lonely – when combined with predestination – creates ‘salvation panic’. Asceticism: refraining from luxury, wearing simple clothes avoiding excess to devote o God and life of prayer. Idea of vocation calling: bible revealed to them we put on the earth to glorify gods name by our work. For Calvinists idea of vocation meant constant, methodical work in occupation – not a monastery. however., work cant earn salvation – simply a religious duty. For this reason they led ascetic lifestyle, worked long hours and practiced self discipline this had 2 consequences: 1. Wealth/success performed

psychological function allowed them to cope with salvation panic. As grew wealthier – took this as sign of gods favour & their salvation (why else would they have prospered) this is contrary to original doctrine – Gods will unknowable.

2. Driven by work ethic – accumulated wealth. Not squander in luxuries – reinvested in businesses – grew prospered = more profit to reinvest.

Religion & Social Protest•Bruce interested in this relationship, compared 2 e.g. Of role of religiosity inspired protest movements in America – aimed to change society.•To achieve success, the beliefs and demands of religion – mot prot, have to b consistent Wider society.

American Civil Rights Movement •1950/60’s – to end racial segregation, blacks denied legal & political rights in southern states segregation enforced on buses, schools, toilets. •Civil rights movement began when Rosa Parks refused to sit at back of bus – protest marches, boycotts, demonstrations. •Bruce describes black clergy as backbone of movement – led by Martin Luther King – churches provided meeting places/sanctuary from threat of white violence. •They shamed whites to change law by appealing to their shared Christian values of equality – gained national support.•Proved hypocrisy – ‘love thy neighbour’.•Movement achieved its aims – shared same values as wider society & those in power.

New Christian Right•Politically, morally conservative, protestant fundamentalist movement. •Was against liberalisation of America. •Aim – take US ‘back to God’ making abortion, homos, divorce = Illegal. •Believe in traditional family/roles – ban sex ed. at school. •Made use of Televangelism.•Unsuccessful in achieving its aims.•As campaigners found hard to cooperate with people from other religious groups.•US hold very liberal democratic values – difficult to change.•Surveys showed Americans happy to legalise activities they found immoral (abortion) and their unwilling to accept other peoples definition of how they should live.

Religion & Social change (Protest)

Marxism, Religion & Change.•Engles: Religion can have a dual character, can be a force for change as well as stability. •Marx sees religion as capable of humanising a world made inhuman by exploitation – even if comfort offered is illusionary. •Although inhibits change by disguising inequality – challenge the status quo and encourage social change e.g. Religion sometimes preaches liberation form slavery/misery. •Lower ranks within church hierarchy support/inspired organised popular protest. •Bloch – religion is an expression of the ‘principle of hope’ - dreams of better world utopia.•This image might deceive a person with promises of rewards in heaven – although might also help people to see what needs to be changed in this world. •This combined with effective political organisations/leadership – bring about social change.

Liberation theology•Movement that emerged within Catholic church in Latin America. •Strong commitment to the poor & opposition to military dictatorship.•Latin America had been conservative – encouraging a fatalistic acceptance of poverty + supporting wealthy elites and military dictatorship. •Priests helped peasants to fight oppression under the protection of the church. •Otto Manduro – religion can bring about change e.g. liberation theology uses religious ideas radicalised the catholic clergy in defence of peasants – making them see that serving the poor was part of their Christian duty.

Millenarian Movements •Important example of desire to change things. •Appeal is largely to the poor – promises immediate improvements.

Gramsci: Religion & HegemonyGramsci – uses word Hegemony to describe how ruling class use ideas such as religion to maintain control. Counter-hegemony could occur (alternative way of living) He also sees religion as having dual character. Some clergy may act as organic intellects.

Topic 3 – Secularisation

Secularisation

Secularisation in Britain•Crockett estimates that in 1851 40% or more adults in Britain attended church on Sundays. •Now threes been:•Decline in proportion of population going to church•Increase in the average age of churchgoers•Fewer baptises and church weddings.•Decline in number holding traditional Christian beliefs•Greater religious diversity, including more non-Christian religions. Wilson: in western societies their going through a process of secularisation.

Church attendance today•Only 6.3% of adult population attend church on Sundays. •Sunday school attendance has declined further.•Church weddings and Baptists remain more popular than attendance on Sunday.

Religious beliefs today•Opinion polls and attitude surveys show:•More people claim they hold Christian beliefs than actually belong/ go to church.•Religious belief declining in line with the decline of church attendance & membership. •Gill et al – national survey:•Significant decline in belief in a person god + in traditional teachings about afterlife.

Religious institutions today•Influence of religion as social institution has declined.•Although church has some influence on public life. (e.g. church of England bishops have influence on legislations) •There are still faith schools, although state funded and must conform to state regulations (national curriculum) •One measure of institutional weakness of the church is number of clergy which fell dramatically – time when population doubled in size.

Explanations:•Modernisation – decline of traditional thoughts more rationale scientific ways of thinking now. (undermine religion) •Industrialisation: break up of small communities that were held together by common religious beliefs.•Growth of social and religious diversity – undermined the authority of religious institutions and credibility of religious beliefs.

Max Weber: Rationalisation•Rational ways of thinking replace religious ones.•Protestant reformation 16th c. began by Martin Luther started this. •For Weber, medieval catholic worldview saw the world as an ‘enchanted garden’ god and other spiritual beings present and changing their events by supernatural powers.

Disenchantment•Webers view: protestant reformation begins the ‘disenchantment’ of the world – squeezes out magical/religious ways of thinking & start the rationalisation process leads to the dominance of the rational mode of thought. •Enables science to thrive and provide the basis for technological advances – give humans more and more power to control nature.

Technological worldview•Bruce argues growth in it has replace religious views. •Technological worldview leaves little room for religious explanations in everyday life – which only survives in areas were technology is less effective – pray for help when sick – no scientific cure. doesn't make people atheist.

Secularisation

Structural differentiation•Palcott describes this as a process of specialisation that occurs with the development of industrial society – separate specialised institutions develop to carry out functions that were previously performed by a single institution. •Parsons sees this having happened to religion – dominated preindustrial society – with industrialisation it has become a small and more specialised institution. •Parsons says structural differentiation leads to the disintegration of religion – functions transferred to other institutions such as state it becomes disconnected from wider society. •Bruce agrees that religion has become separate from wider society and lost many of its former functions. •Religious beliefs are now largely a matter of personal choice & religious institutions have lost influence over society. •Traditional rituals and symbols have lost their meaning.•Even when religion continues to perform functions such as education/social welfare – must conform to requirements of secular state e.g. Teachers at faith schools must hold qualifications that are recognised by the state at the same time, modern states accept that religion is a personal choice and hence the state shouldn't be identified with one particular faith.

Social and Cultural Diversity•Move from pre-industrial society = decline in community – contributes to decline of religion. •Wilson – pre industrial communities – shared values expressed through collective religious rituals, regulated behaviour of individuals. •Bruce also sees industrialisation as undermining the consensus of religious beliefs that hold small rural communities together. •Social/geographic mobility breaks up communities – also brings ppl together from many different backgrounds – diversity. •Diversity undermines religion – even when ppl hold religious beliefs – cant avoid knowing that many around then hold different views – beliefs is undermined by alternatives.

Criticisms•Aldridge points out community doesn't have to be in a particular area:•Religion can be a source of identity on worldview scale: Jews, Hindus, Muslims.• some religious communities are imagined communities that interact through the use of global media.

Religious Diversity•Berger – cause of secularisation is Diversity – instead of one religion – many.•Middle ages – catholic church held monopoly – no competition – gave religion greater plausibility as no challenges – churches version of the truth – unquestionable. •Changed with Protestant Reformation.•Berger – creates crisis of credibility.•when there's alternative versions to choose from – people question all of them. •What's true/false becomes a personal point of view – creates possibility of opting out of religion all together.

Cultural Defence & Transition•Bruce identifies 2 counter-trends that go against secularisation – both associated with higher than average levels of religious participation.•Cultural Defence: religion is focal point for the defence of national, ethnic, local or group identity in a struggle against external force e.g. Hostile foreign power (popularity of Poland before fall of Communism, resurgence of Islam before the Revolution in Iran)•Cultural transition: religion provides support and sense of community for ethnic groups e.g. Migrants. (Irish, African, Caribbean, Muslim n other migrants to UK)•Bruce: religion only survives in such situations –group identity. Shows religion more likely to survive were it performs functions other than relating the individual to the supernatural.•Religion loses importance for migrants once they have integrated into society.

Criticisms•Berger – changed his views, argues that diversity and choice stimulates interest and participation in religion e.g. Growth of New Christian Right in USA points to the continuing vitality of religion not decline. •Beckford – opposing views could strengthen a religious groups commitment than undermining it.

Secularisation

Spiritual Revolution•Traditional Christianity is giving way to ‘hostilic Spirituality’ - new age beliefs and practices that emphasise personal development and subjective experience. •Increased interest in spirituality – seen in growth of spiritual market – books/therapies/meditation/crystal healing.

•In their study of Kendal in Cumbria – Heelas & Woodhead investigate whether traditional religion has declined and how far the growth of spirituality is compensating for this: •The congregational Domain: of traditional/Evangelical Christianity.•The Hostilic Milieu: of Spirituality and the New Age. •Found: 7.9% of population attended church and 1.6% took part in activities of hostilic milieu. •Within the congregation domain – the traditional churches were loosing support – while evangelical churches were holding their own and fairly relatively well.•Hostilic milieu – growing.

Heelas & Woodhead ExplanationsNew age spirituality grown – a massive subjective turn in today's culture. Involves shift away from ding your duty and obeying external authority – to exploring your inner self by following a spiritual path. Traditional religions as a result are declining.Evangelical churches more successful as they emphasis the importance of spiritual healing and personal growth through the experience of being born again.

Bruce:Declining church attendance•Research asking people about church attendance suggests its stable for 40% of population since 1940. •Hadaway – said if figures were correct then churches would be full – they were not full. •He says opinion polls exaggerated. •Hadaway et al studied attendance rates in OHIO – using interviews – carried out head counts – level of attendance claimed by interviews was 83% - higher than the estimate. •Evidence shows tendency to exaggerate churchgoing is recent development. •Concludes there’s a stable decline in attendance rate. People lie about attending as its socially desirable to go to church.

Secularisation form within•Bruce : religion has been turned into a form of therapy. •Thus change has enabled it to fit in with a secular society. •American religion has remained popular but become less religious. •Purpose of religion has changed from seeking salvation in Heaven to seeking personal improvement in this world.

Religious Diversity•Led to secularisation.•Bruce identifies a trend towards practical relativism among Americans – acceptance of the view that others are entitled to hold beliefs that are different to ones own.•Lynd & Lynd (1929) study found that 94% churchgoing young people agreed : ‘Christianity is one true religion & all people should convert to it’ in 1977 only 41% agreed.

Secularisation in America•Wilson found in 1962 that 45% of Americans attended church on Sundays.•Argues that church attendance was more an expression of the ‘Americans way of life’ than of deeply held religious beliefs – it had become superficial.

Criticisms of Secularisation Theory•Religion not declining but simply changing its form. •Secularisation theory is one-sided focuses on decline and ignores religious rivals and growth of new Religions. •Evidence of falling church attendance ignores people who believe bit do not go to church. •Religion might have declined in Europe but not in America or globally – secularisation not universal. •Religious diversity increases participation because it offers choice. •There is no overall downward trend, religions tends to pointing in different directions and people make use of religion in many different ways.

Topic 4 - Religion, Renewal & Choice

Religion, Renewal &

Change

Post modernity & Religion•Some sociologists reject that secularisation thesis that religion must inevitably decline in modern society – religion is changing rather than declining.

Believing Without Belonging•Grace Davie – religion not declining but taking a different more privatised form. E.g. Not going to church because they have to/ churchgoing declined as result of personal choice – rather than obligation = people believe but don't belong.

Vicarious religion•Small number of professional clergy – practice religion on behalf of a much larger number of people (exp 2nd hand). •Typical pattern in Britain and Northern Europe. •Despite low level of attendance – many people still use church for rites of passage (baptising, weddings, funerals) •Bibby : 25% Canadians go to church, 80% said they had religious beliefs. •Davie sees this as evidence for believing but not belonging.

Criticisms•Vaos & Crocket – evidence shows decline in church attendance and belief in God. •Bruce: if people r not willing to invest time in going to church – reflects the declining strength of the belief.

Spiritual Shopping•Hervieu – fewer parents teach children about religion – let them decide for themselves.•Although religion has not disappeared – individual consumerism has replaced collective tradition – spiritual shopping. •She argues 2 new religions are emerging: •Pilgrims: follow individual path in search for self-discovery.•Converts: join religious groups that offer a strong sense of belonging. Usually based on shared ethnic background

Lyon: ‘Jesus in Disneyland’•Agrees with Davie that believing without belonging is increasing. •Traditional belief giving way to a variety of new religions.

The relocation of religion•Globalisation – allows different religions to be advertised via media – giving people ideas and beliefs of other religions. •Media lifts them out of their original context – moving them to different place/time e.g. Electronic church – televangelism dissembled religion from real local churches to internet – allowing believers to express their faith without physically attending church.

Religious Consumerism•Postmodern society also involves the growth of consumerism – esp. the idea that we construct our identities through what we choose to consume.•People have become ‘religious consumers’ making conscious choices about what elements of religion they find useful.

Re-enchantment of the World•Contrary to Webers prediction of increasing rationalism, Lyon sees last ¾ decades as – re-enchantment – with growth of unconventional beliefs/practices.

Criticisms•Postmodernist claim that growth of religious media is evidence against secularisation – research shows people choose to view programmes that confirm their existing beliefs – unlikely that religious media attracts new converts. •Lyon criticises evidence uses – however his ideas are not based on extensive evidence. •Bruce sees consumerist religion as weak – little effect on lives – he sees this as evidence FOR secularisation.

Religion, Renewal &

Change

Religious Market Theory •Stark & Bainbridge – v. Critical of S theory – see it as Eurocentric (explains decline in Europe – fails to explain continuing vitality in America/ elsewhere).•They put forward market theory – based on 2 assumptions:•People r naturally religious & religion meets human needs – overall demand for religion remains constant. •Its human nature to seek rewards and avoid costs. •When people make choices they weight up the costs and benefits of the different options available.

•Religion is attractive – it provides us with compensators when real ones are scarce – religion compensates by promising supernatural ones. •e.g. Immortality is unobtainable – but religion compensates by promising life after death – only religion can provide this – non religious ideologies such as communism do not provide credible compensators – they don't promise supernatural rewards.

•Alternative they put forward is – cycle of religious decline, revival and renewal - some religions decline, but some grow and attract new members, secularisation is one-sided and only sees decline.

•They see churches as companies selling goods in a market – secularisation sees competition as undermining religion – she argues competition leads to improvement in quality of religious goods. •Churches that make their products attractive will attract more customers – meanwhile churches that are not responsive to the needs of their member will decline.

Supply Led Religion Hadden & Shupe argue that growth of ‘televangelism’ in USA shows that level of religious participation is supply led. Stark – Japan is another society where a free market in religion has stimulated participation.

Criticisms•Evidence shows that diversity has been accompanied by religious decline. •Norris & Inglehart – high levels of religious participation exist in catholic monopoly countries like Ireland & Venezuela. – by contrast countries with religious pluralism e.g. Holland/Australia often have low levels of participation.

Existential Security Theory Norris & InglehartReligion meets a need for security – societies where people feel secure have a low level of demand for religion.

Poor societies: where people face life

threatening risks = high levels of insecurity,

poor ppl in rich societies also face greater insecurity.

Rich societies: people have high standard of living & r at less risk – have greater sense of

security – hence lower levels of

religiosity.

This varies between societies – explains why poor 3rd world countries remain religious while prosperous cities have become more secular.

America Vs Europe•Demand for religion increases when there is variety to choose from/ •Where there's religious monopoly = decline, no competition church has no incentive to provide ppl what they want. •S & B – religion thrives in US – no religious monopoly. •Different in Europe: most European countries – dominated by an official state church which has religious monopoly e.g. Church of England – lack of choice - decline. •They conclude – participation increases when there's choice – declines when supply is restricted.

State welfare & religiosity•Lundengaarde found that the more a country spends on welfare the lower levels of religious participation.•Europe spend allot on welfare = more secular than USA.

Evaluation•Vasquez makes 2 criticisms: •Only use quantitative data about income levels – don't examine peoples own definitions of ‘existential security’ – argues qualitative data also needed. •They only see religion as negative response to deprivation – ignore positive reasons people have for religious participation.

Topic 5 - Religion & Development

Religion & Development

God & Globalisation in India•Globalisation – bought rapid economic growth.•Bought rising prosperity to some of India's new middle class. •Nanda’s book examines role of Hinduism (85% population) in legitimating both the rise of a new Hindu ‘ultra – nationalism’ & prosperity of Indian middle class.

Hinduism & Consumerism •Globalisation – created urban MC working – IT, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology – tie with the global economy – the 1st whom secularisation theory predicts will abandon religion in favour of secular worldview.•Nanda – found (survey) they believe in supernatural – Indian’s becoming more religious. •Urban educated Indians more religious than rural illiterate counterparts. •Could b because increase in religious tourism – visits to shrine/temple – fashionable to be religious. •She rejects view that poverty is explanation for their religion – their not poor. •Nanda – increasing religiosity result of their ambivalence about new found wealth. •Due to tension between the traditional Hindu belief in Renunciation of materialism/worldly desirers & new prosperity of MC. •Resolved by modern holy men – telegurus – preach message that desires not bad.

Hindu Ultra-nationalism•Nada examines role of Hinduism in legitimating a triumphant version of Indian Nationalism.•Survey found 93% agreed that ‘our people are not perfect, but our culture is superior to others.’ •She notes that Indian success contributed to superiority of Hindus values.•Hindu ultra nationalism – worshiping Hindu gods – become same as worshiping nation of India

Capitalism in East Asia•South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan – recent years industrialised – players in global economy. •China major industrial power. •Redding describes the spirit of capitalism among Chinese entrepreneurs –sees their post-Confucian values as encouraging hard work/self- discipline to education & self-improvement. •Effect of this – leads to economic productivity & accumulation of capital. •Similar to Calvinists.

Pentecostalism in Latin America •Berger argues it acts same as Weber's Protestant Ethic. •Like Calvinists, Pentecostalism demands ascetic life, emphasised self-discipline, hard work, abstinence from alcohol. •Chile/Brazil now growing, prosperous Pentecostal MC – leading capitalist development. •Berger underlines that religious ideas alone – not enough to produce economic development – natural resources also needed. •E.g. North Brazil – lacks resources & remains backwards –South Brazil – developing rapidly – natural resources & work ethnic derived from Pentecostalism.

Pentecostalism: Global & Local•Christianity – globalised & spread worldwide. •Lehmann – 1st phase: Christianity accompanied colonisation – often enforced by conquest.•2ns phase: gained popular following from bellow (Brazil, 80mil)

•Lehmann attributes success of Pentecostalism - ability to ‘plug-in’ and incorporate local ideas. •Attract cults such as spirit possession cults, as work of the devil, but their ministers conduct exorcisms to rid people of evil spirits – accept its existence – validates local traditional beliefs.

Poland•Under communist rule – USSR•Catholic church suppressed – 4 many poles still embodied national identity. •After communism fell – church regained public role.

Criticisms•Jackson- sees his work as e.g. Of orientalism – western ideology that stereotypes eastern nations & ppl (esp. Muslims) as untrustworthy, inferior. •Armstrong – hostile towards west – not from F in Islam – reaction to western foreign policy- e.g. West continue to support Israel despite treatment of Palestine's.

Cultural Defence: •Where religion serves to unit a community against an external threat – religion symbolised groups collective identity. •Iran & Poland examples of how religion used in defence of national identity- face of political domination by external powers.

Religion & Development

Religious Fundamentalism •Has emerged as major area of media and political concern – international Islamic terrorists Term ‘fundamentalist’ also been applied to followers of other religions including protestant Christians.

Fundamentalism & Cosmopolitanism •Giddens – their traditionalist seek to return to the basics of their faith. •Intolerant – refuse to dialogue with others – justify their views by reference to sacred texts rather than rational arguments. •Tend to avoid contact with others who think differently.•He sees growth of it as product of globalisation (undermine social norms concerning nuclear family abortion ext)•Attraction to it is the certainty it promises in an uncertain world. •He contrast this with cosmopolitanism (way of thinking that embraces modernity in keeping today's globalised world)•C – tolerant of views of others – open to new ideas.•Use rational arguments not ref to sacred texts. •Persons life = personal choice not ascribed by external religions.

Response to post modernity•Bauman sees fundamentalism also as response to living in post modernity.•PM – brings freedom of choice, uncertainty, heightened awareness of risk – undermining old certainties about how to live. •Some attracted to it – some NOT – attracted to fundamentalism - claims of absolute truth & certainty.

Criticisms•Beckford – this distinguishes too sharply between C and F- ignoring hybrid movements. •Fixated on F – ignoring other important developments – how G affected Catholicism.•Giddens lumps all types of F together, ignoring important differences between them.

Monotheism & Fundamentalism•Bruce – regards fundamentalism as being confined to monotheistic religions. •Because – monotheistic religions are based on a notion of god revealed through a single authoritative sacred text.In Bruce's view – 2 fundamentalisms•In west – F often reaction to change within society, e.g. New Christian Right. Aims to reassert true religion – restore it to public role were it can shape laws & morals of wider society.•In 3rd world: reaction to change on society from outside, e.g. Iranian revolution. Triggered by modernisation in which western values imposed by foreign capitalism.

Iran•Western Capitalist held influence, inc. overthrow of democratic government to install pro-western regime. •Ayatollah – imposed Islamic law on the country – bring back veil.

Religion & ‘clash of Civilisations’ •Religion been centre of conflicts – 9/11 Islamic attack – bombings in Madrid, Bali, London. •Neo-conservative Huntington – such conflicts got worse since collapse of communism. •Religious differences become major source of identity for 2 reasons: •Globalisation makes contact between civilisations easier and more frequency – increased likelihood of old conflicts re-emerging. •Fall of communism – political differences between nations less important as source of identity. •His view – religious differences cause hostile relationships for economic & military power.•Conflict also occurring boundaries between civilisations – Yugoslavia. •Religious differences harder than political to resolve as there’re deeply rooted in culture & history.

Real clash of civilisations•Inglehart &Norris – issue dividing west from Muslim world is sexuality. •Difference in views about divorce, gay rights, abortion. •Muslim values remain traditional.

Topic 6 - Organisation, movements & Members

Organisation, Movements &

Members

Types of religious organisationsTroelstch distinguished between 2 types of religious organisations.

Churches •Large organisation – millions of members.•Run by bureaucratic hierarchy of professional priests.•Claim monopoly of truth.•Universalistic – aim to include whole society – more attracted to higher classes – ideologically conservative & closely linked to state.

Sects•Small – exclusive groups •Unlike churches sects are hostile to wider society•Expect higher level of commitment•Draw members from poor, oppressed. •Led by charismatic leaders•Only similarity: believe they have monopoly of religious truth.

Niebuhr identified other types of religious organisations:

Denominations•E.g. Methodism, lying between sect & church.•Membership less exclusive to sect – don’t appeal to whole of society like church.•Broadly accept societies values – not linked to state.•Impose minor restrictions like no alcohol, not as demanding as cults. •Don’t claim monopoly• accept other religious.

Cult•Highly individualistic•Loose knitted•Usually small groups around shared themes/Interests.•Usually no sharply defined exclusive belief system.•Usually led by practitioners/therapists – who claim special knowledge.•Tolerate other religions•Don’t demand strong commitment.•Mainly world affirming – claiming to improve life in the world.

•Roy Wallis: •how they see themselves: churches & sects claim their interpretation is the only legitimate. Denominations & cults accept their can be many.•How they’re seen by wider society: •Churches and denominations are seen as respectable & legitimate, sects and cults are seen as deviant.

From Cathedrals to CultsSome argue these descriptions don’t fit today's reality. E.g. Bruce argues only catholic church claims monopoly before 16th century protestant reformation. Since sects/cults = flourished and religious diversity is the norm.

New religious Movements •Since 1960 – exposition on no. of new religious organisations – led to attempts to classify them.•Wallis categorised new religious movements into 3 groups, based on relationship to outside world – whether it rejects it, accommodates to it – or affirm it.

World Rejecting NRM’S•Similar to sects e.g. children of god, Manson family – vary in size.•Religious organisation with clear notion of god.•Highly critical of outside world – expect/seek radical change. •To achieve salvation must make sharp break with former life.•Members live communally – restricted contact with outside world – ‘brainwashed’. •Conservative moral thoughts e.g. about sex.

World Accommodating NRM’S•Often break away from existing churches/ denominations e.g. neo Pentecostals who split from Catholicism.•Neither accept/reject the world. •Focus on religious rather than worldly matters.

World Affirming NRM’S•Lack conventional features of religion – collective worship. •Offers followers access to spiritual/supernatural powers. E.g. scientology.•Accept world as it is – optimistic promise followers success in terms of mainstream goals/values – careers personal relationships. •Non exclusive – tolerant of other religions.•Claims to offer special knowledge that enables followers to unlock their own spiritual powers & achieve success/ overcome problems such as unhappiness/illness. •Most successful – enter trough training few demands – carry on life as normal.

Evaluation•Not clear whether organised according to the teachings/ individual members beliefs. •Willis recognises himself that real NRM’S will rarely fit neatly – some may have features of all 3.•Starke & Bainbridge – reject idea – says we should distinguish them according to the degree of conflict/tension between the religious group & wider society.

Organisation, Movements &

Members

Sects & CultsStark & Bainbridge identify 2 organisations that are in conflict with wider society sects & cults:

•Sects: result from schisms – split In existing organisations – break away from churches usually because of doctrine disagreement. •S& B see sects as promising other worldly benefits – to those suffering economic deprivation/ethical deprivation.

•Cults : new religions such as Scientology. •tend to order worldly benefits to more prosperous individuals who are suffering from psychic deprivation – organisimic deprivation. •They subdivided cults according to how organised they are.

•Audience cults: least organised – don’t involve formal membership/ commitment. Littler interaction between members. Participation might be through the media e.g. UFO cults.

•Client Cults: based on relationship between consultant and client, provides services to followers. E.g. medical miracles, emphasis shifted to therapies promising personal fulfilment.

•Cultic movements: most organised. Demands higher level of commitment. Aims to meet its members religious needs – rarely allowed to belong to other religious groups at same time.

•They make useful distinctions between organisations – however the idea of using the degree of conflict is similar to Treltschs distinction between church (accept) and sects (reject society.

Explaining the growth of religious movements - Marginality•Secs draw members from the poor and oppressed.•Weber suggests that such trends arise in groups who are marginal to society, such groups may feel dis- privileged – sects offer solution to this problem by offering their members a theodicy of dispriveledge (argument in defence of God's goodness despite the existence of evil). •Might explain misfortune as a test of faith holding a promise of rewards in the future for keeping the faith.

Relative deprivation•Refers to the subjective sense of being deprived – possible for privileged person to feel they are deprived/disadvantaged in some way compared with others. •Although MC people are materially well-off they feel they are spiritually deprived (Willis) •Turn to sect for sense of community.•Stark & Bainbridge – argue its the relatively deprived who break away from churches.•Stark & Bainbridge argue that world-rejecting sects offer the deprived the compensators that they need for the rewards their denied in this world.•By contrast, privileged need no compensators – attracted to world affirming churches – that express their status and bring them further success in achieving earthly rewards.

Social Change •Wilson argues – rapid change disrupts and undermine established norms & values – producing normlessness. •Response to uncertainty/insecurity – ppl may turn to sects as a solution, less attracted to traditional churches – too much commitment •Instead people prefer cults – less demanding & require fewer sacrifices.

Growth of NRM’S •Explanations put forward for both world rejecting/ world affirming. •Wallis – points out changes – increased time students spend in education.•Free time from adult responsibilities – enables counter culture to develop.•World – rejecting NRM’s more attractive offer young people more idealistic way of life.

World affirming NRM’S •Bruce argues growth – a response to modernity – esp. to rationalisation of work.•Work no longer provides meaning/source of identity (before protestant ethnic gave work religious meaning)•Yet at same time were expected to achieve – world affirming NRM’S provide sense of identity.

Organisation, Movements &

Members

Dynamic of Sects & NRM’S•Churches – have a history stretching over many centuries, sects are often short –lived, frequently lasting only a single generation/less.

Denomination or deathNiebuhr argues – sects are world rejecting come into existence because of splitting from the church – disagreement over religious doctrine. Argues that sects are short lived and that within a generation, they either die out/compromise with the world, abandon extreme ideas and become denominations, reasons:

The 2nd generation: born into sect, lack the commitment to copy parent, who had consciously rejected the world and joined voluntarily. The protestant Ethic effect: sects that practice asceticism tend to become prosperous and upwardly mobile – members tempted to compromise with the world – leave it. Death of a leader: sects with charismatic leasers either collapse on leaders death – more burocratic leadership takes over – transforming it to a denomination.

The Sectarian cycle•Stark & Bainbridge see religious organisations moving through a cycle – 1st stage there's tension between the needs of the deprived + privileged members of church.•2. Deprived members break away + find world rejecting sect. •3. denominationalism: the ‘ protestant ethic’ effects – and the coolness of the 2nd generation means fervour disappears.•4. establishment: sect becomes more world accepting tension reduces.•5. When less privileged from the group, break away to find new sect.

Established sects•Wilson argues not all sects follow this pattern:•Conversionists sects such as evangelicals – aim to convert large number of people – likely to grow rapidly into larger more formal denominations.•Adventists such as Jehovah Witness await the second coming of Christ – to be saved – believe they must hold themselves separate from the corrupt world around them, separation prevents them from compromising and becoming denominations.

•Wilson argues – some sects have survived over many generations – e.g. Penacostalsits – instead of becoming denominations – these groups become established sects.•Some succeed into socialising their children into high commitment – largely by keeping them away from wider world.•He argues Globalisation will make it harder for sects to keep themselves separate from outside world – however Globalisation make it easier to recruit in 3rd world .

The Growth of the New Age New age covers a range of belief and activities that have been widespread since 1980’s. According to Heelas – 2 common themes:Self-spirituality: new agers seeking the spiritual have turned away from traditional ‘external’ religions such as the churches & instead look inside themselves to find it. Detraditionalisation: New age rejects the spiritual authority of external traditional sources such as priests. Sacred texts. Instead – values personal experience & believes that we can discover the truth for ourselves within ourselves.

Post-modernity and the New Age•Drane: argues its appeal is part of a shift towards postmodern society.•One of the features of postmodern society is a loss of faith – science promises to bring progress to a better world but instead its given us war, genocide, environmental destruction and global warming. •As result people lost faith in experts/ professionals such as scientists and doctors and disillusioned with the church to meet their spiritual needs – turn to NAM to find truth for ourselves by looking within.

New Age and ModernityBruce argues its growth is result of the latest phase of modern society – values individualism. Key principle of new age beliefs – each individual has the truth within themselves. He sees New age beliefs as softer versions of more demanding religions – Buddhism.Heelas also sees New Age & Modernity linked: Source of identity: ppl have different roles, jobs, family = fragmented identity – NA = source of Authentic Identity.Rapid social change: disrupts established norms/values = anomie NA= Certainty/Truth.Secularisation: removes traditional alternatives.

Organisation, Movements &

Members

Religiosity and Social Groups

Gender & Religion•Priesthoods of most religions are male, more women participate in religious activities and believe in God.•Miller & Hoffman – found that women express greater interest in religion – have a stronger personal commitment to it and attend church more.

Reason for Gender Differences:•Socialisation and gender roles•Miller & Hoffman – women more religious as socialised to be more passive, obedient and caring – qualities valued by most religions. •Men who have these qualities more likely to be religious. •They note that women more likely to work part-time or be full time carers + more scope for organising their time to participate in religious activates.•Women attracted –source of gender identity.•Davie – argues women's closer proximity to birth & death, brings them closer to ultimate question.

Women and New Age•Women more associated with Nature and healing role, more attracted to New Age Movements that celebrate the natural + involves cults of healing.•Bruce – women's child birth experience makes them less aggressive and goal orientated more cooperative and caring – what men wish to achieve, women wish to feel.•On other hand some women ma be attracted to fundamentalism because of the certainties of a traditional gender role that is prescribed to them.

Compensation for Deprivation•Glock & stark & Stark & Bainbridge – people might participate in religion because of the compensators for social orgasmic and ethical deprivation that it offers – these forms of deprivation are more common among women and this explains their higher level of sect membership.

Recent trends•Women leaving church at faster rate than men. Press from home, family and work = intensive•Brown : since 1960’s women started to reject traditional subordinate gender roles at same time – traditional religion also.

Ethnicity & religiosity•Biggest groups are Christians, Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs.•Muslims, Hindu and black Christians more likely than white Christians to see religion as important.

Reasons for ethical differences: Most ethnic minorities originate from poorer countries with traditional cultures, both of which produce higher level of religious belief – on arrival to UK they maintain a pattern they with them from their country of origin.

Cultural Defence•Bird – notes religion among minorities can be a basis for community solidarity – means of preserving ones language/culture - a way of coping with oppression in racist society.•Black Christians didn't feel welcome in white churches – led to church such as Pentecostals.

Cultural Transition•Religion can be used as source of easing the transition into a new culture providing support and sense of community for minority groups. •Herberg: uses these explanations for high levels of religious participation. •Rastafarianism radically rejected the wider society as racist and exploitative.

Age + Religion•The older a person – more likely they attend religious services.•The under 15s – more likely to go to church than older as their made to do so by parent.•The over 65 – more likely to be sick/disabled and unable to attend. Higher death rates also makes this a smaller group – reduces total number ‘available’ to attend.

Reasons for age difference (Vaos & Crockett) The aging effect: ppl turn to religion as they get older, as we approach death – naturally become more concerned bout spiritual matters and the afterlife.The generation effect: as society becomes more secular, each new generation less religious – hence more old than young – C. Gill – no religious socialisation for children – less likely to go church. Generation efft more significant.

Topic 7 - Science as Belief System

The CUDOS Norms•Functionalist Merton – science can only thrive as a major social institution if it receives support from other institutions and values. •Science as institution needs an ‘ethos’ that makes science act in ways that serves the goals of increasing scientific knowledge. •Communism•Scientific knowledge is not private property – scientists must share it with the scientific community, otherwise knowledge cannot grow. •Universalism•The truth/falsity of scientific knowledge is judged by universal objective criteria – not by characterises of the scientists who produced it.•Disinterestedness•Being committed to discovering knowledge for its own sake – having to publish their findings makes it harder for scientists to practice fraud – since it enables other to check their claims.•Organised scepticism•No knowledge is regarded as sacred, every idea is open to questions/investigation.

Science as a belief system

Secularisation theorists – argue that it has undermined religion by changing the way we think+ how we should see the world.

The impact of Science•Big impact – medicine, transport, communications•Raised our standards of living (economic productivity) •Led to widespread ‘faith in science’ •Recently this faith has been dimmed by a recognition that science may cause problems as well as solve them – e.g. Global warming, pollution•By protecting us – caused its own manufactured risks – threaten the planet. •Its given us cognitive power – enables us to explain, predict and control the world in ways other pre-scientific belief systems could not.

Open belief system•Popper – open belief system where every scientists theories are open to scrutinise, criticisms and testing by others = science governed by the principle of falsification.•Popper – scientist knowledge is cumulative – it builds on the achievements of previous scientists to develop better understanding of world. •No theory ever taken definitely true – someone could disprove it – popper not sacred or the absolute truth.

Closed Belief system•Religion is different in the respect that it doesn't change over time – it claims knowledge of absolute truth, therefore cant be challenged – its fixed and cant grow.•Horton distinguishes between open belief systems such as science and closed belief systems such as religion, magic, their knowledge cannot be successfully overturned.

Witchcraft Among Azande•Azande don't believe in coincidence of chance – they explain misfortune in terms of witchcraft- someone probably neighbour – practicing witchcraft against me.•Injured party goes to – prince – will administer potion to a chicken – at the same time asking whether the accused is a source of witchcraft + telling it to kill the chicken if yes. If chicken dies – the suffering can go + publicly demand the witchcraft to stop.•Enough to end a problem – believe witches do it unconsciously. •Pitchard argues that belief system performs useful social functions – prevents clears the grudge from festering – encourages neighbours to behave considerately to one another – reduce risk of accusation.•As they believe witchcraft is hereditary, children have vested interest in keeping their parents in line – belief system is an important social control – ensuring conformity and cooperation. Closed system cant be overturned by evidence.

Self-sustaining beliefs•Polanyi – belief systems have 3 devices to sustain themselves in the dace of contradictory evidence: •Circularity – each idea explained in terms of another idea within the system + so on round + round. •Subsidiary explanations: e.g. If one oracle fails, could be explained away as due to the incorrect use of potion. •Denial of Legitimacy to rivals: belief system rejects alternative worldview by refusing to grant any legitimacy to their basic assumption.

Science as a belief system

Science as a closed system•Kuhn argues that mature science is based on a set of marked assumptions•that he calls a paradigm. (lays out broad outline – scientist need to fill in the details)•Scientific education – process of being socialised into faith in the truth of the paradigm – successful career depends on working with the paradigm. •Anyone who challenges it – likely to be ridiculed – no one would regard them as scientist at all.

Sociology of Scientific knowledge•Interpretivist developed Kuhn's ideas – argue that all knowledge including science in socially constructed. •Scientific facts are products of shared theories/paradigms that tell them what they should expect to see with the instruments they use.

Little Green Men•Woolgar – scientists are engaged in the same process of making sense of the world – when confronted by evidence – have to decide what it means – by applying theories or explanations – then to persuade others to accept their interpretation.

Marxism, Feminism & Postmodernism•Marxist and feminist see scientist knowledge as far from he pure truth. Instead, see it as serving the interests of dominant groups (ruling class/men)•Many advances in science – driven by the need for capitalism – e.g. Ballistics – driven by need for new weaponry.•Biological explanations have been used to justify male domination. •In this respect science can be seen as a form of ideology.

•Postmodernist Lyotard – says science is one of meta-narratives that falsely claim to possess the truth – he says science falsely claims to possess the truth about how the world works as a means of progress to a better society – in reality – science is jus a way of thinking that is used to dominate people – like Marxist, some postmodernist - argue that science has become techno science – serving the interests of capitalists by producing commodities for profit.

Ideology•Set of ideas/values (a belief system) negative aspects include:•Distorted, false mistaken ideas about the world, biased – one sided view of reality.•Ideas that conceal the interests of a particular group – or justify their privileges.•A self sustaining belief system that is irrational and closed to criticism.

Marxism & Ideology•2 classes – capitalist and working class (sell their labour).•C take advantage of this exploiting their work for profit, its in the workers interest to overthrow capitalism by means of a socialist revolution and replace it with a classless communist society.•For this to happen, working class must become conscious of their true position as exploited ‘wage slaves’ – develop class consciousness•Ruling class also control production of ideas e.g. via education, mass media, religion – produce ruling class ideology – ideas that legitimise the status quo (existing social set up) •.

•Ruling class ideology includes ideas & beliefs:

•Equality will never work – goes against ‘human nature’.•Victim blaming ideas about poverty – Bowles – Gintis ‘the poor are dumb’ theory of meritocracy: everyone equal chance in life – poor must be poor because they’re stupid or lazy – not because of capitalism. •Racist ideas about inferiority of ethnic minorities.

•Domination ideas prevents change by creating a false-consciousness among the workers, Marx believes, workers will develop true class consciousness + unite to overthrow capitalism

Science as a belief system

Hegemony & Revolution•Gramsci argues that working class develop ideas that challenge ruling class hegemony.•Because workers have dual consciousness – mixture of ruling class ideas – own ideas from direct experience + struggle against it.•Gramsci thinks to overthrow capitalism – requires a political party or ‘organic intellectuals’ – experienced, exploited workers that can spread class consciousness through working class.•However some critics this – there's no existence of dominant ideology that keeps workers in line/ prevents attempts to overthrow capitalism.•Abercrombie et al – argues its economic factors such as the fear of unemployment that keeps

workers from rebelling.

Karl Mannheim : Ideology and Utopia•Work on ideology was done between the 2 world wars – time of political/ social conflict – undoubtedly influenced his view. •Mannheim sees all belief systems as one-sided world views – results from the viewpoint of one particular group/class and its interests. Leads him to believe/distinguish between two broad types of belief systems.

•Ideological thought: justifies keeping things the way they are – reflects position/ interest of privileged group such as capitalist. They benefit from marinating the status quo – belief system tends to be conservative – favours hierarchy.

•Utopian thought: justifies social change reflects position and interest of underprivileged + offers a vision of how society could be organised differently – disadvantaged by status quo – might want radical change – classless society.

•Because these individuals represent the interests of particulars group – not socially as whole – only produce partial view of reality.•For Mannheim – this is source of conflict in society, different intellectuals produce opposed and antagonistic ideas that justifies the interests and claim for their group and against others.

•In his view – solution would be to detach intellectuals from groups they represent and create non- aligned/free floating intelligence standing above the conflict.•They are able to synthesise elements of different ideologies to arrive to a total worldview that represents the interests of the party as a whole. •However many of the elements of different political ideologies are opposed to one another – hard to imagine how these could be synthesised.

Feminism & Ideology•Feminism see gender inequality as the fundamentals division and patriarchal ideologies as playing key role in legitimising it.•Marks describes – how ideas from science have been used to justify excluding women from education.•In 19th century, believed that if women got educated they would become unfeminine – wouldn’t be able to nurture the next generation. •Religion also has been used to define women as inferior.•Women impure/unclean because of periods and menstruation.•However, in early history – before emergence of patriarchal religions (Christianity – Judaism, Islam) miracle religions with female deities were widespread, with female priests, celebration of fertile cults – similarly in Hinduism – women goddesses have often been portrayed as mothers/creators of the universe.