Agrodiversity in the traditional agrosystems of the Rif mountains (north of Morocco)

Volume 9 Numbers 1 & 2 2008

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EditorSPECIAL BOARD OF EDITORS

PatronMAURICE STRONGUnder-Secretary-General, UNSpecial Advisor to the UN Secretary-GeneralSecretary-General, 1992 UN Conference on Environment& Development & Biological Diversity Convention, Brazil.

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Publication Date: 29 April 2008

Biodiversity

Biodiversity

Volume 9Numbers 1 & 2

ISSN 1488-8386

CONTENTS 2008

Biodiversityis indexed by

Biosis, Cambridge Scientific Abstracts,

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Back Cover: Rice, Oryza sativa L., see caption page 35.Inside Front Cover Art: The Diversity of Life by Roelof Idema

ArticlesGlobal biodiversity - The source of new crops. E. Small and P.M. Catling ...........................................3The value of taxonomy to biodiversity and agriculture. Chris Lyal, Paul Kirk, David Smith and Richard Smith ...8Sustaining livestock biodiversity – From assessment to action. Dafydd Pilling, David Boerma, Beate

Scherf and Irene Hoffmann .....................................................................................................................14Ecosystems and the value of adjacent protected areas to agriculture.

Waltraud Kugler and Elli Broxham Stahl ...............................................................................................19The maintenance of crop genetic diversity on farm: Supporting the Convention on Biological

Diversity’s Programme of Work on agricultural biodiversity. Devra I. Jarvis and Toby Hodgkin .......... 23 Benefits of sward diversity for agricultural grasslands. A. Lüscher, J.A. Finn, J. Connolly, M.T. Sebastià, R.

Collins, M. Fothergill, C. Porqueddu, C. Brophy, O. Huguenin-Elie, L. Kirwan, D. Nyfeler and A. Helgadóttir .......... 29Organic agriculture enhances agrobiodiversity. Cristina Grandi ......................................................33Biodiversity, nutrition and livelihoods in aquatic rice-based ecosystems. Matthias Halwart ..........36The effectiveness of participatory plant breeding as a tool to capitalize on agrobiodiversity in

developing countries. C.J.M. Almekinders, S. Humphries and A. von Lossau ........................................ 41Opportunity for conserving and utilizing agrobiodiversity through agroforestry

in Southern Africa. Paxie W. Chirwa, Festus K. Akinnifesi, Gudeta Sileshi, Stephen Syampungani, Elix K. Kalaba and Oluyede C. Ajayi .........................................................................................................45

Diversity in local rice germplasm and rice farming: A case study of Thailand. Benjavan Rerkasem .......49Ecoregions with crop wild relatives are less well protected. Sue Stolton,Tim Boucher, Nigel Dudley,

Jonathan Hoekstra, Nigel Maxted and Shelagh Kell ..................................................................................52 Reconciling genetic resources and local knowledge conservation and livelihoods enhancement

in research and development: Experiences of Bioversity International in Sub-Saharan Africa. P. Maundu and Y. Morimoto ....................................................................................................................56

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi - An underground resource for sustainable upland agriculture. N. Yimyam, S. Youpensuk, J. Wongmo, A. Kongpan, B. Rerkasem and K. Rerkasem ...........................................61

Towards sustainable management of soil biodiversity in agricultural landscapes in Africa. Gudeta Sileshi, Festus K. Akinnifesi, Oluyede C. Ajayi, Sebastian Chakeredza, Simon Mng’omba and Betserai Isaac Nyoka .........................................................................................................................................64

Genebanks in the post-genomic age: Emerging roles and anticipated uses. Christina Walters, Gayle M. Volk and Christopher M. Richards .................................................................. 68

Domestication and conservation of indigenous Miombo fruit trees for improving rural livelihoods in southern Africa. Festus K. Akinnifesi, Gudeta Sileshi, Oluyede C. Ajayi, Paxie W. Chirwa, Simon Mng’omba, Sebastian Chakeredza and Betserai I. Nyoka .............................................................................................72

Towards protecting soil biodiversity in Europe: The EU thematic strategy for soil protection. Luca Montanarella .................................................................................................................................75

Agrodiversity in the traditional agrosystems of the Rif mountains (north of Morocco). Younes Hmimsa and Mohammed Ater ....................................................................................................78

Benefits of biodiversity conservation to agriculture and rural livelihoods. Katrina Brandon, Will R. Turner, Götz Schroth, and Mohamed Bakarr ..........................................................82

Pollinating Flies (Diptera): A major contribution to plant diversity and agricultural production. Axel Ssymank, C.A. Kearns, Thomas Pape & F. Christian Thompson ...............................................................86

Developing result-orientated payment schemes for environmental services in grasslands: Results from two case studies in North-western Germany. Elke Bertke, Sebastian Klimek and Burghard Wittig ...91

A predictive model of local agricultural biodiversity management in Southern Cameroon. A.W. Mala, Geldenhuys, R. Prabhu .............................................................................................................. 96

Pacific Island agrobiodiversity and ethnobiodiversity: A foundation for sustainable Pacific Island life. R. R. Thaman ............................................................................................................... 102

in every issueEDITOR’S CORNERIncreasing the compatibility of agriculture and biodiversity. E. Small ...............................................2

SPECIES BY SPECIESblossoming treasures of biodiversity14. Grass Pea (Lathyrus sativus) - Can a last resort food become a first choice? E. Small & P.M. Catling ....111

BIODIVERSITY NEWS 2008 – The International Year of the Potato; Functional Diversity May Give Resilience to Stresses from Global Warming; World Livestock Production Perilously Dependent on a Few High-Yielding Breeds; Intense Crossbreeding Threatens Uganda’s Ankole Cow with Extinction; Unknown Disease Threatens Several Species of Bats with Extinction; Invasive Species: a Global Problem with Local Consequences; Eutrophication and Hypoxia Choking Coastal Waters; Soybean Boom Forcing Paraguay to Examine Pesticide Use; Manifestos on the Future of Food and Seed; Svalbard Seed Vault Opens; Are Rising Global Food Costs Driven by Increased Biofuel Production?; Biotech Companies withdraw from International Agriculture Science and Technology Assessment; Indonesia; Tree Conservation at the Village Level ...117

BOOK REVIEWSThe State of The World’s Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture; Managing Biodiversity in Agricultural Ecosystems; Protected Landscapes and Agrobiodiversity Values; Agroecology in Action; Biodiversity in Agricultural Production Systems; Agriculture Biodiversity and Biotechnology in Economic Development; Development Markets for Agrobiodiversity; Heirloom Seeds and Their Keepers ...... .............................. 126

S p e c i a l i S S u e

T h e V a l u e o f B i o d i v e r s i t y t o F o o d a n d a g r i c u l t u r eTo those who farm the living earth and nurture our livestock– may they

reap a rich and full harvest as they continue to respect the diversity of life.

78 T R O P I C A L C O N S E R V A N C Y

Agrodiversity in the traditional agrosystems of the Rif mountains (north of Morocco)

intrODuctiOnAgrodiversity refers to the landscape level biodiversity and includes the diversity of local social organizations and technologies that protect biodiversity and reduce agricultural and ecological risks (Brookfields et al. 1994; Almekinders et al. 1995). Enhancing agrodiversity requires first an understanding of what it is. Here we document agrodiversity in the Rif region of Morocco.

In Morocco, excluding some oases, the traditional agro-systems belong to the agro-sylvo-pastoral system which is practiced particularly in mountainous zones. These agro-systems are characterised by various traditional crops, the predominance of small property, reduced useful agricultural surface, and use of unprofitable local varieties.

In the Rif, the physical site (climate, soil, relief…) is heterogeneous. Erosion is very serious (Fay 1973; El Gharbaoui 1981) and the soil loss is indicator of excessive pressure. The Rif region is considered a hot spot of biodiversity in the Mediterranean area (Médail et al. 1997). In fact, this region includes, the intercontinental biosphere of the Mediterranean, extending over 1 million hectares on both the Moroccan and Spanish banks, including two national parks and several natural reserves. Agriculture is considered as the main pivot of the rural economy in the Rif. It is traditional subsistence agriculture practiced under difficult conditions which are limiting its expansion.

Here we characterise the agrodiversity of the traditional agro-systems in the Rif using the evaluation of relatively simple

Abstract. The main objective of this study is to evaluate the agrodiversity in the traditional agrosystems of the Rif. The local varieties, marginal crops, neglected and\or underused natural resources and the traditional knowledge were inventoried. This study is based on inquiries to farmers and grains storekeepers. The fruit varieties are remarkable in number so that arboriculture constitutes an essential element of the Rif agrosystems. These various crops are represented by local varieties, which are cultivated in well specified areas with limited exchanges among different regions. Fruit trees are harvested from natural areas. The protection of biodiversity can only be a result of persistence and the maintenance of this agricultural richness. Ecological damage and risks to agriculture such as introduction of selected varieties and the culture of cannabis can be avoided by evaluation and exploitation of this rich genetic heritage. Key words. Agrodiversity, agrosystems, landraces, traditional knowledge, conservation.

Younes Hmimsa and Mohammed Ater

Figure 1. Locations of different

villages (+) and markets (p) surveyed in the Rif

(North Morocco).p

authors’ addresses:LDICOSYB, Biology Department, Sciences Faculty, Abdelmalek

Essaadi University, Box. 2121, Tétouan 93

002, Morocco Corresponding author : [email protected]

B I O D I V E R S I T Y 9 ( 1 & 2 ) 2 0 0 8 79

indicators such as richness of local varieties (landraces), exchange circuits, state of resources, conservation and traditional knowledge. Existing information on agrodiversity in this area (Birouk et al. 1997, 2002) is very fragmented and mostly concerned with genetic resources evaluation for particular crops with national or international significance.

MAteriAl AnD MetHODsTo evaluate the agrodiversity in the traditional agrosystems in the Rif, we undertook the poll technique. The survey is based on questionnaires designed to gather data relative to crops considered representative of traditional agro-systems. In this regard, we only take into consideration the crops based on the exploitation of local varieties (Guy 1986). The local varieties are defined here in the sense of having been managed by the farmers over a restricted geographic zone. In fact, the farmers affirm that they can distinguish those varieties by qualitative characteristics. Besides traditional crops, we also gathered information on new crops and on some aspects of traditional knowledge.

The surveys were aimed at two different populations:• Tradesmen; this allowed us to gather information about

the commercial circuit of seeds (origin, destination, etc.), and information concerning the tradesmen themselves (site of commerce, state of property, etc.).

• Farmers; this allowed us to gather information about agrodiversity for cereals, legumes, and fruits by specifying

the names of varieties, origin, surface cultivated, utilisation, and the state of conservation, as well as identify the main forestry species exploited by the farmers. The inquiries concluded with a discussion concerning the state of conservation and the actual trends of regression or extinction of some varieties and/or crops.

The study covered 16 markets and 172 villages (Figure 1) dispersed over 15,125 km2. results AnD DiscussiOnthe exchange circuits:The souks are weekly markets in the countryside. They represent important locations of socio-economic activity in the given territory where various exchanges take place. They are also places of high interest in the study of the local seeds circuit. The seed trade is perpetuated either by the local tradesmen (68%) or travelers who visit several souks within the same region (32%). The importance of the seed trade is related to the agriculture calendar and attains maximal activity during the periods of harvesting and sowing. The low number of tradesmen, an average of two per souk, indicates a restricted market as well as the level of scarcity of local seeds. The inquiries showed that 79% of seeds are conserved in the origin area and the main purchaser is the farmer (Fellah) (84% of purchasers). Tradesmen (80%) sell their needs in the same region. The survey of the farmers confirmed this trend and they used almost exclusively local seeds. The exchange

Table 1: List of cultivable species in the Rif

Species Common names

Local varieties

Regional Abundance

National Importance

Fre-quency Origin Regres-

sionSurface

(ha)

CEREALS

Triticum turgidum Durum wheat

EzzaraaiCC. Maj.

39% 87% 80% 2.

Swini 32% 80% 80% 2

Hordeum vulgare BarleyBeldi CC.

Maj.89% 83% 53% 2

Ambia RR. 1% 100% 100% 0,5

Sorghum bicolor SorghumHamra

CC. Min.40% 82% 96% 1

Bayda 15% 54% 92% 1

Zea mais CornHamra

C Maj10% 76% 100% 0,5

Bayda 30% 66% 90% 0,5

Secale cereale Rey - R Marg. 26% 100% 100% 1

Triticum monococcum Engrain - RR. Marg. 1% 100% 100% 0,5

LEGUMINOUSVigna unguiculata Cowpea - RR. Marg. 24% 62% 90% 0,5

Vicia ervilia Ers - RR. Marg. 37% 65% 100% 0,5

Vicia sativa Tare - RR. Marg. 13% 78% 89% 0,5

Lens culinaris Lens C. Min. 23% 68% 100% 0,5

Pisum sativum Pea Kahla, Bezaya C Min. 16% 68% 100% 0,5

Trigonella foenum-graecum Fenugrec - R. Min. 7% 75% 100% 0,25

Cicer arietinum Chick-peaKortchi C.

Maj.26% 70% 82% 1

Maayzou R. 12% 85% 100% 0,25

Vicia faba Bean

Menkoub, Orbayte CC.

Min.51% 57% 77% 0,5

Breri, Fouléte C. 59% 77% 88% 1

* Marginal species with regional interest. National importance: Min= minor, Maj= major and Marg= marginal. Varieties: number of local varieties identified and named by farmers. Regional Abundance: C= common, CC= Very common, R= rare and RR= Very rare. Frequency: Frequency of names cited by farmers; Origin: % of farmers using theirs private seeds, Regression: tendency estimated by farmers, Surface: average of cultivated surface in hectares.

80 T R O P I C A L C O N S E R V A N C Y

Species Common names Number of varieties Abundant Varieties Rare Varieties National importance

Regional Abundance

Ficus carica Fig 105 1 95 Min. CC.

Vitis vinifera Vine 21 - 20 Min. C.

Prunus domestica Plum 13 - 13 Min. C.

Pyrus communis Pear 11 - 10 Min. R.

Malus pumila Apple 8 - 8 Min. R.

Punica granatum Pomegranate 7 - 5 Min. C.

Prunus armeniaca Apricot 6 - 6 Min. R.

Citrus sinensis Orange 4 0 4 Maj. C.

Opuntia ficus-indica Prickly pear 2 1 - Marg. CC.

Prunus dulcis Almond 2 - 1 Min. C.

Olea europaea Olive 2 - - Maj. CC.

Cydonia oblonga Quince 2 - - Min. C.

Juglans regia Walnut 1 - 1 Marg. RR.

Prunus avium Cherry 1 - 1 Marg. RR.

Table 2: List of fruit tree inventoried in the traditional agro-systems of the Rif

circuits correspond to the spatially limited production zone. It is a closed circuit - fellah-fellah and /or fellah-tradesmen.

the agrodiversityAgrodiversity is evaluated by the range of practised crops and the richness in local varieties used. The data collected confirm a discernable diversity level (Table 1, 2). We revealed the persistence of very rare crops such as Triticum monococcum, Vicia ervifilia and Vicia sativa. However, the varietal diversity is low and each crop is represented by only one or two varieties. Concerning the fruits trees, we identified not only the importance of Mediterranean species such as fig and vine but also members of the Rose family (Rosaceae, Table 1). The variety of fruit trees is very high, especially within fig trees which constitute a major element of the agro-system of the Rif. Within the fig we identified 105 varieties or local denominations (Table 2).

The Moroccan official statistics arrange the crops in two groups qualified by major and minor according to the importance in terms of size of surface cultivated. When crops didn’t appear in the official statistics, we qualified them as marginal. This last category corresponded particularly to crops having a regional value and localised distribution. For marginal cereals and legumes (Table 1), the inquiries show that the marginal crops are declining and have already disappeared from some regions. Within the major crops, we identified the presence of local varieties identified and known by the farmers. Such local varieties were noted within wheat, barley, chickpea, bean and pea (Table 1). However, the low number of varieties concealed a large genetic diversity owing to a very polymorphic population. In fact, if we take the example of sorghum, the local varieties of northwest Morocco belong mainly to one race “durra” with only two distinct forms, cernuum and durra (Kadiri et al. 1997) corresponding respectively to local varieties bayda and hamra. The genetic evaluation of this race (Djé et al. 1998, 1999) has shown a high genetic diversity intra-field. The

comparison with the world collection (Djé et al. 2000) has shown the specificity of these local varieties.

The diversity of fruit tree species is significant. The olive tree has an increasingly important place within the agro-systems. However, the varietal diversity is limited to two local varieties, bouchouka and hamrani. The introduced varieties are identified under the wide denomination of “Zitoune”. However, genetic researchers have confirmed the unique widespread variety of olive called the “Picholine marocaine” (Khadari et al. 2007). Nevertheless, for some species such as the fig, vine, pear and plum trees, the diversity is very significant represented by little known local varieties. To appreciate the specificity of such varieties, we classified them into two categories: the abundant (presence between 80 and 100%) and the rare varieties (presence less then 20%) (Table 2). The number of rare varieties is very important within different species, specifically within fig and vine. Historically, theses two fruits occupy a preponderant rank compared to cereals in the agrosystems. These two crops present an interesting situation from the gene flux dynamics perspective, due to their co-existence in the same area with spontaneous or wild populations. Genetic studies of fig trees in the region have demonstrated the unique character of these local resources (Ater et al. 2005; Khadari et al. 2005).

Some non-cultivated species of forest and pre-forest ecosystems could be categorized as neglected or underutilized fruits. The promotion and harvest of these species by the local people is based on traditional knowledge and practices. In some places wild harvesting has almost disappeared (Table 3).

examples of traditional knowledge:The traditional knowledge of the local populations is inherited from a long, rich cultural history in the region. Two examples of threatened local knowledge follow.

B I O D I V E R S I T Y 9 ( 1 & 2 ) 2 0 0 8 81

Species Essences Frequency Use

Laurus nobilis Laurel 61% Oil extraction from fruits, the common use is for food (flavour and spices).

Pistacia lentiscus Lentisque 95% Oil extraction for food and medicinal use from fruits is very rare. The leaves and the bark have various applications, the most current is fire wood.

Arbustus unedo Strawberry 72% Fruit collected, consumed, sold.

Castanea sativa Chestnut 15% Fruit collected, consumed, sold.

Quercus sp. Oak 75% Fruit collected, consumed, essentially exploited for crock and wood.

Ceratonia siliqua Carob 70% Fruit collected, sold, transformed in industry.

Table 3: List of forest resources neglected and/or underutilized.

In cereals, the marginal cultivation of rey and engrain still occur mainly for the production of straw known to be stronger than that of other cereals. It is utilised for roof construction of traditional rooms and making saddles for loading animals.

In the fruit trees, the traditional juice (syrup) produced from raisins is called “Samite or arrobe”. The harvested grapes are crushed with feet in huge wooden barrels. The juice obtained is filtered before being cooked in clay jars, a process to avoid fermentation. This syrup is conserved in the jars for medical as well as gastronomic uses.

cOnclusiOnsThe crops investigated in the Rif, are based on local varieties. The results of the inquiry indicate that the local origin of such crops is confined by local exchange circuits. The factors which threaten the sustainability of these traditional agro-systems are multiple and complex. They fall into three categories:

• Socio-economic: unfair competition, low income, high splitting up of land properties, loss of traditional knowledge, rural exodus, low product value, change in food habits.

• Natural environment: water, soil, climate change, biodiversity decline.

• Techniques: negligence of basic practices such as pruning and phyto-sanitary control, land and water management.

• Furthermore, the spread of Cannabis constitutes a serious threat to the traditional agro-systems. In addition, the transmission of local varieties and traditional knowledge is noted to be low. Thus, the traditional knowledge and practices are at risk of disappearing.

• Regarding agricultural biodiversity, we noticed that genetic diversity requires more study. The richness of rare local varieties underlines the importance of these agro-systems which function as a refuge of agrodiversity. This huge diversity of genetic resources constitutes a major challenge for conservation. A favourable option is in situ conservation based on the agro-system as a conservation unit. It is an alternative that may be able to fit into programs of sustainable development such as agro- tourism which highlights the agricultural and cultural inheritance of traditional knowledge, the agricultural landscape and agrodiversity. The promotion of this mode of tourism may contribute to the maintenance of the traditional varieties and consequently contribute to the improvement of the level of living of the local peoples.

AcKnOWleDGeMents:The authors thank CNRST of Morocco, UNESCO (Men and Biosphere), WADI project (Contract: INCO-CT2005-015226) for supporting this study, A. El Ouahrani for helping in the translation and anonymous lecturer for his comments.

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