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Actual Gender Differences • There are documented gender differences – Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity
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Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

Dec 30, 2015

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Jonas Patterson
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Page 1: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

Actual Gender Differences

• There are documented gender differences

– Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity

Page 2: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

But:

• Relatively few documented differences

– Gender stereotypes suggest more differences than are actually documented by research

• Even documented differences are relatively small in size

– Average performance of males and females is not extremely different

Page 3: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

Figure 15.3 A typical distribution of scoresSiegler, DeLoache and Eisenberg: How Children Develop, Second EditionCopyright © 2006 by Worth Publishers

Page 4: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

Gender Typing

• Process by which a child:

– Becomes aware of his or her gender

– Acquires information about the characteristics and behavior viewed as appropriate for males or females (gender stereotypes)

– Acquires the characteristics and behaviors viewed as appropriate for either males or females (gender roles)

Page 5: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

Development of Gender Awareness

• By 2.5 to 3 years, children label their own sex and that of other people

• Do not yet understand that sex is a permanent characteristic

Page 6: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

Development of Gender Stereotypes

• By 2.5 years, children have some knowledge of gender stereotypes

• Over the preschool/early school years, learn more about toys, activities, and achievement domains considered appropriate for boys versus girls– Ex (achievement): boys are good at math;

girls are good at English

Page 7: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

• By late elementary school, children know gender stereotypes associated with psychological characteristics (personality traits)

– Ex: males are assertive, aggressive, ambitious; females are emotional, nurturing, dependent

Page 8: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

• Preschoolers’ gender stereotypes tend to be rigid

– Don’t usually realize that characteristics associated with sex (e.g., activities, clothing) don’t determine whether one is male or female

• May be one reason they treat gender stereotypes as “rules” rather than as beliefs

Page 9: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

• By elementary school, children’s gender stereotypes are more flexible

– Understand that stereotypes are beliefs, not “rules”

– However, older children do not necessarily approve of “cross-gender” behavior

Page 10: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

Development of Gender Role Behavior

• Between approximately 14-22 months, children begin to show sex-typed toy preferences

• Sex-typed toy play increases through the preschool years

• Children begin to avoid peers who violate gender roles

Page 11: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

• Gender segregation develops by ages 2 to 3 years

– Tendency to associate with same-sex playmates

• Typically lasts until around the onset of puberty

• As children progress through elementary school, girls’ gender role behavior becomes more flexible

Page 12: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

• Gender Intensification:

– Greater conformity to “traditional” gender roles, especially for girls, in early adolescence

• Increased pressure from parents and peers for conformity

– Gender intensification declines over the course of adolescence

Page 13: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

Biological Influences on Gender Typing

(Hormonal Influences)

• Experimental animal studies indicate that exposure to androgens (male sex hormones):

– Increases active play in male and female mammals

– Promotes male-typical sexual behavior and aggression and suppresses maternal caregiving behavior in a wide variety of species

Page 14: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

Humans:

• Cannot do experimental research for ethical reasons

– Correlational research

Page 15: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

• In boys, naturally occurring variations in androgen levels are positively correlated with

– Amount of rough-and-tumble play

– Levels of physical aggression

Page 16: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

• Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

– Disorder in which child is exposed to high levels of androgens from the prenatal period onward

– Compared to girls without CAH, girls with CAH show

• Higher activity levels• Greater interest in “male-typical” toys, activities,

and occupations• Better spatial/mathematical abilities

Page 17: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

Environmental Influences on Gender Typing

• Social Learning Theory

– Gender typing results from

• Observational learning– By watching male and female “models”, children learn

“appropriate” appearance, activities/occupations, and behavior for each sex

• Rewards and punishments associated with gender-typed behavior

– Rewards for conforming to appropriate gender role and lack of rewards and/or punishment for failure to conform

Page 18: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

Parental Behavior

• On average, data suggest that differences in parental treatment of boys and girls are not large

• Does not mean that parental behavior is unimportant because:

– Younger children receive more direct “training” from parents about gender roles than do older children

– Parents vary in the extent to which they practice differential treatment

Page 19: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

Evidence for Differential Treatment

• Some data indicate that parents – Provide gender-stereotyped toys (e.g.,

vehicles, dolls)– Are more responsive when children engage in

“gender-appropriate” play

• But data are not always consistent across studies – Parents also provide gender-neutral toys for

children

Page 20: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

• Gender-stereotyped toys may encourage different behaviors, characteristics, or abilities in males and females

– Parents give toys that encourage action and competition to boys (e.g., toy weapons, toy vehicles, construction toys and tools, sports equipment)

– Parents give toys that encourage nurturance, cooperation, and physical attractiveness to girls (e.g., dolls/stuffed animals, toy dishes, jewelry, jump ropes)

Page 21: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

• Other evidence indicates that parents encourage different behaviors in boys and girls

– More likely to encourage independence in boys

• Respond more positively when boys demand attention, are highly active, or try to take toys from others

• More likely to – Refuse or ignore a son’s request for help– Challenge boys in teaching situations (e.g., offer

scientific explanations, ask high-level questions)– Assign household chores that are outside the house

(e.g., yard work, taking out the trash)

Page 22: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

– More likely to encourage closeness and dependence in girls

• More likely to:

– Direct play activities – Provide help – Engage in conversations– Talk about emotions– Assign chores inside the house

Page 23: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

• Differential treatment of boys and girls may be relatively subtle

– Data indicate gender differences in parent-child communication

Page 24: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

– Parents more likely to offer scientific explanations to sons than to daughters (at a museum)

• Ex: “When you turn that fast, it makes more electricity” versus “Turn that handle”

– Mothers more likely to give boys greater freedom (autonomy) to make decisions

• Ex: “When do you think would be a good time for you to do your music practice?” versus “Do your practicing right after dinner”

Page 25: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

Parental Beliefs

• Parental beliefs are likely to influence parental behavior toward children

– Ex: On average, parents rate sons as more competent in math/science than daughters even when there is no difference in performance

Page 26: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

• Parents’ beliefs about their children’s abilities in specific areas/subjects are related to children’s

– Self-perceptions of their abilities in those subjects

– Effort in those subjects

– Later performance in those subjects

Page 27: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

• Cognitive theories emphasize children’s active role in the process of gender typing (self-socialization)

Page 28: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

Cognitive Developmental Theory (Kohlberg)

• Three Stages:

– Basic Gender Identity:

• Recognition that one is a boy or a girl

– Emerges between 2.5 and 3 years

Page 29: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

– Gender Stability

• Understanding that gender is stable over time

– Emerges between 3 and 5 years

Page 30: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

– Gender Constancy/Consistency

• Understanding that gender is constant/consistent across situations regardless of appearance or activities

– Emerges between 5 and 7 years

Page 31: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

• Kohlberg: Gender constancy leads to gender typing

– Why is this incorrect?

Page 32: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

Gender Schema Theory:

• Children construct gender schemas

– Organized mental representations incorporating information about gender

• Include children’s own experiences and information conveyed by others, including gender stereotypes

• Schemas are dynamic—change as children acquire additional information

Page 33: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

• Once children achieve basic gender identity, they are motivated to conform to gender roles

• Motivated to prefer, pay attention to, and remember more about others of their own sex

• Children use gender schemas to process information and guide their behavior

Page 34: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.
Page 35: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

Evidence: Gender Schema Theory

• Children use gender labels given to toys to guide their behavior

– Gender-neutral, unfamiliar toys/objects labeled as “for girls” or “for boys”

• Children prefer the toys/objects consistent with their gender

Page 36: Actual Gender Differences There are documented gender differences –Exs: aggression, activity level, compliance, emotional expressivity.

• Children show biases in their memory for information about gender

– More likely to accurately remember information that is consistent with gender stereotypes

– More likely to forget or distort information that is inconsistent with gender stereotypes