A motivational perspective on job and work design

Job and Work DesignJob and Work Design

Bruce GilstrapBruce GilstrapMarch 8, 2006March 8, 2006

22

From http://www.reebok.com/

33

What is job and work design?What is job and work design?

Why is job and work design important?Why is job and work design important?

What do people want from their work?What do people want from their work?

From http://www.despair.com/

Job and Work DesignJob and Work DesignSome Initial QuestionsSome Initial Questions

44

Job and Work DesignJob and Work DesignMorgeson & Campion (2003)Morgeson & Campion (2003)

Characteristics of WorkCharacteristics of Work

Job ComplexityJob Complexity► Skill varietySkill variety► Task identityTask identity► Task significanceTask significance► AutonomyAutonomy► Feedback from jobFeedback from job► Attentional/problem-Attentional/problem-

solving demandssolving demands► Timing/method controlsTiming/method controls► Production responsibilityProduction responsibility► SpecializationSpecialization

Social EnvironmentSocial Environment► Dealing with othersDealing with others► FriendshipFriendship► Social supportSocial support► Job/task interdependenceJob/task interdependence► Feedback from othersFeedback from others

Physical DemandsPhysical Demands► Physical activityPhysical activity► Work conditionsWork conditions► SchedulingScheduling► Equipment/technologyEquipment/technology► Ergonomic designErgonomic design

Contextual InfluencesContextual Influences

Social InfluencesSocial Influences► Coworker job Coworker job

satisfactionsatisfaction► Coworker job Coworker job

complexitycomplexity► Positive & negative Positive & negative

social cuessocial cues► Leader behaviorLeader behavior

Structural InfluencesStructural Influences► Organizational structureOrganizational structure

♦ FormalizationFormalization♦ CentralizationCentralization♦ SizeSize

► TechnologyTechnology♦ UncertaintyUncertainty

► Physical environmentPhysical environment

Mediating MechanismsMediating Mechanisms

Critical Psychological StatesCritical Psychological States► Experienced Experienced

meaningfulness of workmeaningfulness of work► Experienced Experienced

responsibility for work responsibility for work outcomesoutcomes

► Knowledge of resultsKnowledge of results

EmpowermentEmpowerment► MeaningMeaning► CompetenceCompetence► Self-determinationSelf-determination► ImpactImpact

Knowledge LevelKnowledge Level► Speed of response to Speed of response to

problemsproblems► Increased system Increased system

knowledgeknowledge► Skill utilizationSkill utilization► Information processing Information processing

demandsdemands

OutcomesOutcomes

Psychological OutcomesPsychological Outcomes► Job satisfactionJob satisfaction► Growth satisfactionGrowth satisfaction► Internal work motivationInternal work motivation► Work stressWork stress► Mental overload/underloadMental overload/underload

Behavioral OutcomesBehavioral Outcomes► Job performanceJob performance► AbsenteeismAbsenteeism► TurnoverTurnover► Customer serviceCustomer service► AccidentsAccidents► ErrorsErrors

Human Resource OutcomesHuman Resource Outcomes► Skill requirementsSkill requirements► Training demandsTraining demands► Compensation levelsCompensation levels

Role DefinitionsRole Definitions► Ownership for problemsOwnership for problems► Role breadth self-efficacyRole breadth self-efficacy

55

Theories of MotivationTheories of Motivation

► Reward systemsReward systems

► Disciplinary systemsDisciplinary systems

► Job and work designJob and work design


66

Theories of MotivationTheories of MotivationOverview (Jex, 2002)Overview (Jex, 2002)

► Need-based theoriesNeed-based theories

► Job-based theoriesJob-based theories

► Cognitive process theoriesCognitive process theories

► The behavioral approachThe behavioral approach

77

Theories of MotivationTheories of MotivationNeed-Based TheoriesNeed-Based Theories

Major PremiseMajor Premise“…“…human behavior is directed largely by desire to satisfy needs”human behavior is directed largely by desire to satisfy needs”

(Jex, 2002: 214)(Jex, 2002: 214)

► Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Maslow’s Need Hierarchy (Maslow, 1943)(Maslow, 1943)

► ERG Theory ERG Theory (Alderfer, 1969)(Alderfer, 1969)

► Need for Achievement Theory Need for Achievement Theory (McClelland, 1965)(McClelland, 1965)

88

Theories of MotivationTheories of MotivationNeed-Based TheoriesNeed-Based Theories

SummarySummary

► Have not been very good at predicting Have not been very good at predicting purposeful behavior in organizations purposeful behavior in organizations

► Have fallen out of favor within organizational Have fallen out of favor within organizational psychology psychology

► Fundamental problem: Workplace is only one of Fundamental problem: Workplace is only one of many settings in which people can seek to many settings in which people can seek to satisfy their needssatisfy their needs

99

Theories of MotivationTheories of MotivationJob-Based TheoriesJob-Based Theories

Major PremiseMajor Premise“…“…the key to understanding motivation lies in the content of the key to understanding motivation lies in the content of

employees' jobs”employees' jobs”(Jex, 2002: 214)(Jex, 2002: 214)

► Motivator-Hygiene TheoryMotivator-Hygiene Theory (Herzberg, 1968)(Herzberg, 1968)

► Multidisciplinary ApproachMultidisciplinary Approach (Campion & Thayer, 1985)(Campion & Thayer, 1985)

► Job Characteristics ModelJob Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham, 1976)(Hackman & Oldham, 1976)

1010


Job Characteristics ModelJob Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham, 1976)(Hackman & Oldham, 1976)

Core JobDimensions

Critical Psychological States

Personal & Work Outcomes

Skill Variety

Task Identity

Task Significance

Autonomy

Feedback

ExperiencedMeaningfulness

of the Work

ExperiencedResponsibility for

Outcomes of the Work

Knowledge of theActual Results of

the Work Activities

High internalwork motivation

High qualitywork performance

High satisfactionwith the work

Low absenteeismand turnover

Employee Growth Need Strength

1111


SummarySummary

► Extended ideas about motivation from strictly Extended ideas about motivation from strictly needs to include job content needs to include job content

► By focusing on job content these theories have By focusing on job content these theories have not paid appropriate attention to the processes not paid appropriate attention to the processes by which outcomes resultby which outcomes result

1212

Theories of MotivationTheories of MotivationCognitive Process TheoriesCognitive Process Theories

Major PremiseMajor PremiseThe thought processes through which behaviors emergeThe thought processes through which behaviors emerge

are key elements to understanding motivationare key elements to understanding motivation(Jex, 2002)(Jex, 2002)

► Expectancy Theory Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964)(Vroom, 1964)

► Equity Theory Equity Theory (Adams, 1965)(Adams, 1965)

► Goal-Setting Theory Goal-Setting Theory (Locke, 1968)(Locke, 1968)

► Control Theory Control Theory (Powers, 1973)(Powers, 1973)

1313


Expectancy Theory Expectancy Theory (Vroom, 1964)(Vroom, 1964)

► Sometimes referred to as VIE TheorySometimes referred to as VIE Theory► Elements:Elements:

♦ ExpectancyExpectancy♦ InstrumentalityInstrumentality♦ ValenceValence♦ ForceForce

► Motivational force is determined by this equation:Motivational force is determined by this equation:

n

iii VIEF

1

1414


Equity Theory Equity Theory (Adams, 1965)(Adams, 1965)

► Basis: Social Exchange TheoryBasis: Social Exchange Theory (Homans, 1958)(Homans, 1958)

► Assumptions:Assumptions:♦ Employees believe they bring Employees believe they bring inputsinputs to the to the

organizationorganization♦ Employees believe they receive Employees believe they receive outputsoutputs from the from the

organizationorganization♦ Employees compare their ratio of inputs to outputs to Employees compare their ratio of inputs to outputs to

a comparison othera comparison other♦ Comparison results in perception of equity or inequityComparison results in perception of equity or inequity♦ In a state of inequity balance is soughtIn a state of inequity balance is sought

► What insights into employee behavior do you What insights into employee behavior do you think are provided by Equity Theory?think are provided by Equity Theory?

1515


Goal-Setting Theory Goal-Setting Theory (Locke, 1968)(Locke, 1968)

► Assumptions:Assumptions: ♦ Goals direct attention and focus effortsGoals direct attention and focus efforts♦ Goals help maintain task persistenceGoals help maintain task persistence♦ Goals facilitate the development of task strategiesGoals facilitate the development of task strategies

► Attributes of goals that make them motivatingAttributes of goals that make them motivating♦ DifficultyDifficulty♦ AcceptanceAcceptance♦ SpecificitySpecificity♦ FeedbackFeedback

1616


Goal-Setting Theory Goal-Setting Theory (Locke, 1968)(Locke, 1968)

► Excellent empirical supportExcellent empirical support► Some specific findingsSome specific findings (Locke & Latham, 2002)(Locke & Latham, 2002)

♦ The most difficult goals produced the highest levels of The most difficult goals produced the highest levels of effort and performanceeffort and performance

♦ Specific difficult goals produce higher performance Specific difficult goals produce higher performance than urging people to do their bestthan urging people to do their best

♦ When goals are self-set, people with higher self-When goals are self-set, people with higher self-efficacy set tougher goals than people with lower self-efficacy set tougher goals than people with lower self-efficacyefficacy

♦ People who set difficult goals are tend to be least People who set difficult goals are tend to be least satisfiedsatisfied

► Not without downsideNot without downside (Wright et al., 1993)(Wright et al., 1993)

1717


Goal-Setting Theory Goal-Setting Theory (Locke & Latham, 2002)(Locke & Latham, 2002)

Goal Core

SpecificityDifficulty

Performance

Productivity

Satisfaction with Performance and

Rewards

Willingness to Commit to New

Challenges

Moderators

Goal CommitmentGoal Importance

Self-EfficacyFeedback

Task Complexity

Mechanisms

Choice/DirectionEffort

PersistenceStrategies

From Locke & Latham (2002)

1818


SummarySummary

► These theories address the fundamentals of how These theories address the fundamentals of how motivation really worksmotivation really works

► Complexity may make these theories difficult for Complexity may make these theories difficult for managers to implementmanagers to implement

1919

Theories of MotivationTheories of MotivationThe Behavioral ApproachThe Behavioral Approach

Major PremiseMajor Premise“…“…behavior is largely a function of its consequences”behavior is largely a function of its consequences”

(Jex, 2002: 231)(Jex, 2002: 231)

► Elements:Elements:♦ ReinforcementReinforcement♦ PunishmentPunishment♦ ExtinctionExtinction♦ ShapingShaping♦ FeedbackFeedback

► Interesting examples Interesting examples Kerr (1975, 1995)Kerr (1975, 1995)

► Organizational Behavior Modification (OBM)Organizational Behavior Modification (OBM)

2020

Theories of MotivationTheories of MotivationReviewReview

Need-Based Theories

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy(Maslow, 1943)

ERG Theory(Alderfer, 1969)

Need for Achievement Theory

(McClelland, 1965)

Job-Based Theories

Motivator-Hygiene Theory(Herzberg, 1968)

Multidisciplinary Approach(Campion & Thayer, 1985)

Job Characteristics Model(Hackman & Oldham, 1976)

Cognitive Process Theories

Expectancy Theory(Vroom, 1964)

Equity Theory(Adams, 1965)

Goal-Setting Theory(Locke, 1968)

The Behavioral Approach

Organizational Behavior Modification

2121

Job and Work DesignJob and Work DesignMorgeson & Campion (2003)Morgeson & Campion (2003)

Characteristics of WorkCharacteristics of Work

Job ComplexityJob Complexity► Skill varietySkill variety► Task identityTask identity► Task significanceTask significance► AutonomyAutonomy► Feedback from jobFeedback from job► Attentional/problem-Attentional/problem-

solving demandssolving demands► Timing/method controlsTiming/method controls► Production responsibilityProduction responsibility► SpecializationSpecialization

Social EnvironmentSocial Environment► Dealing with othersDealing with others► FriendshipFriendship► Social supportSocial support► Job/task interdependenceJob/task interdependence► Feedback from othersFeedback from others

Physical DemandsPhysical Demands► Physical activityPhysical activity► Work conditionsWork conditions► SchedulingScheduling► Equipment/technologyEquipment/technology► Ergonomic designErgonomic design

Contextual InfluencesContextual Influences

Social InfluencesSocial Influences► Coworker job Coworker job

satisfactionsatisfaction► Coworker job Coworker job

complexitycomplexity► Positive & negative Positive & negative

social cuessocial cues► Leader behaviorLeader behavior

Structural InfluencesStructural Influences► Organizational structureOrganizational structure

♦ FormalizationFormalization♦ CentralizationCentralization♦ SizeSize

► TechnologyTechnology♦ UncertaintyUncertainty

► Physical environmentPhysical environment

Mediating MechanismsMediating Mechanisms

Critical Psychological StatesCritical Psychological States► Experienced Experienced

meaningfulness of workmeaningfulness of work► Experienced Experienced

responsibility for work responsibility for work outcomesoutcomes

► Knowledge of resultsKnowledge of results

EmpowermentEmpowerment► MeaningMeaning► CompetenceCompetence► Self-determinationSelf-determination► ImpactImpact

Knowledge LevelKnowledge Level► Speed of response to Speed of response to

problemsproblems► Increased system Increased system

knowledgeknowledge► Skill utilizationSkill utilization► Information processing Information processing

demandsdemands

OutcomesOutcomes

Psychological OutcomesPsychological Outcomes► Job satisfactionJob satisfaction► Growth satisfactionGrowth satisfaction► Internal work motivationInternal work motivation► Work stressWork stress► Mental overload/underloadMental overload/underload

Behavioral OutcomesBehavioral Outcomes► Job performanceJob performance► AbsenteeismAbsenteeism► TurnoverTurnover► Customer serviceCustomer service► AccidentsAccidents► ErrorsErrors

Human Resource OutcomesHuman Resource Outcomes► Skill requirementsSkill requirements► Training demandsTraining demands► Compensation levelsCompensation levels

Role DefinitionsRole Definitions► Ownership for problemsOwnership for problems► Role breadth self-efficacyRole breadth self-efficacy

What’s missing?

2222

Job and Work DesignJob and Work DesignPoints of Conflict/Interest: Points of Conflict/Interest: FormalizationFormalization

► Formalization, by means of its association Formalization, by means of its association with “bureaucracy” has become with “bureaucracy” has become something of a pejorative termsomething of a pejorative term

► Even so, scientific management methods Even so, scientific management methods (Taylorism) are still prevalent in today’s (Taylorism) are still prevalent in today’s organizationsorganizations (Cherns, 1978; Wall & Martin, 1987)(Cherns, 1978; Wall & Martin, 1987)

► Does bureaucratic formalization demand Does bureaucratic formalization demand a negative response?a negative response?

2323


► Bureaucracies are not inherently badBureaucracies are not inherently bad

► The key is how people view the bureaucracy’s The key is how people view the bureaucracy’s rulesrules♦ Mock bureaucracyMock bureaucracy♦ Punishment-centered bureaucracyPunishment-centered bureaucracy♦ Representative bureaucracyRepresentative bureaucracy

Enabling & Coercive Bureaucracies Enabling & Coercive Bureaucracies (Adler & Borys, 1996)(Adler & Borys, 1996)

2424


Enabling & Coercive Bureaucracies Enabling & Coercive Bureaucracies (Adler & Borys, 1996)(Adler & Borys, 1996)

Type of FormalizationType of Formalization

EnablingEnabling CoerciveCoercive

Degree of Degree of FormalizationFormalization

LowLow OrganicOrganic AutocraticAutocratic

HighHigh Enabling Enabling BureaucracyBureaucracy MechanisticMechanistic

At what point does At what point does motivationmotivation become become manipulationmanipulation??

2525

Job and Work DesignJob and Work DesignPoints of Conflict/Interest: Points of Conflict/Interest: AutonomyAutonomy

► One of the weaker connections in the original Job One of the weaker connections in the original Job

Characteristics ModelCharacteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham, 1976: 264)(Hackman & Oldham, 1976: 264)

► Recent study has provided some basis for Recent study has provided some basis for

optimism about the role of autonomyoptimism about the role of autonomy (Morgeson et al., 2005)(Morgeson et al., 2005)

2626

Job and Work DesignJob and Work DesignPoints of Conflict/Interest: Points of Conflict/Interest: AutonomyAutonomy

Autonomy & Job Performance Autonomy & Job Performance (Morgeson et al., 2005)(Morgeson et al., 2005)

Path model with standardized regressionPath model with standardized regression

coefficients (all significant at coefficients (all significant at pp < .01) < .01)

Job Autonomy

Cognitive Ability

Job-related Skill

Role Breadth Job Performance

.27

.29

.29

.25 .28

2727

Job and Work DesignJob and Work DesignPoints of Conflict/Interest: Points of Conflict/Interest: Individual ContributionsIndividual Contributions

GeneticsGenetics

► Job satisfaction linked to genetic factorsJob satisfaction linked to genetic factors (Arvey et al., (Arvey et al.,

1989)1989)

♦ Organizations may not have as much control over job Organizations may not have as much control over job satisfaction, particularly intrinsic satisfaction, as is satisfaction, particularly intrinsic satisfaction, as is commonly believedcommonly believed

♦ Satisfaction may be somewhat stable, i.e. predictable Satisfaction may be somewhat stable, i.e. predictable based on current satisfactionbased on current satisfaction

► Work values (what people want from their work) Work values (what people want from their work)

linked to genetic factorslinked to genetic factors (Keller et al., 1992)(Keller et al., 1992)

2828


DispositionDisposition

► Dispositional propensities may diminish the Dispositional propensities may diminish the effectiveness of job design effectiveness of job design (Staw et al., 1986)(Staw et al., 1986)

► Potential interpretationsPotential interpretations♦ Job design may not be worth the effort Job design may not be worth the effort (Miner, 1980)(Miner, 1980)

♦ Job design needs to be strong in order to overcome Job design needs to be strong in order to overcome dispositional forcesdispositional forces

♦ Job design needs to be tailored to individual Job design needs to be tailored to individual differences in order to be effectivedifferences in order to be effective

► What are the strengths and weaknesses of these What are the strengths and weaknesses of these interpretations?interpretations?

2929


Cognitive AbilityCognitive Ability

► Significantly related to task performanceSignificantly related to task performance (Ree & Earles, (Ree & Earles,

1992; Jensen, 1993; Morgeson et al., 2005)1992; Jensen, 1993; Morgeson et al., 2005)

► Implications for assessment and selectionImplications for assessment and selection

► Like disposition, job and work design may need Like disposition, job and work design may need to be strong in order to overcometo be strong in order to overcome

3030


Job Crafting Job Crafting (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001)(Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001)

► Most “classic” approaches to job design take a Most “classic” approaches to job design take a decidedly organization/management oriented decidedly organization/management oriented approachapproach

► Job crafting posits a more dynamic processJob crafting posits a more dynamic process► Job crafting is “the physical and cognitive Job crafting is “the physical and cognitive

changes individuals make in the task or changes individuals make in the task or relational boundaries of their work.” relational boundaries of their work.” (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, (Wrzesniewski & Dutton,

2001: 179)2001: 179)

3131


Job Crafting Job Crafting (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001)(Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001)

► Motivations for job craftingMotivations for job crafting♦ Need for personal controlNeed for personal control♦ Need to create and sustain positive sense of selfNeed to create and sustain positive sense of self♦ Need for human connectionNeed for human connection

► Forms of job craftingForms of job crafting♦ Changing the task boundariesChanging the task boundaries♦ Changing the relational boundary of the jobChanging the relational boundary of the job♦ Changing the cognitive boundaries of the jobChanging the cognitive boundaries of the job

3232

Job and Work DesignJob and Work DesignReviewReview - Big Ideas - Big Ideas

► Organization goals vs. Employee goalsOrganization goals vs. Employee goals

How to align?How to align?► Motivational approachesMotivational approaches

♦ Need-Based theoriesNeed-Based theories♦ Job-Based theoriesJob-Based theories♦ Cognitive Process theoriesCognitive Process theories♦ The Behavioral ApproachThe Behavioral Approach

► Job Crafting approachJob Crafting approach

3333


A motivational perspective on job and work design

Documents

administrative

work experienced

problems role

motivationcognitive

human decision

job characteristics

based theories

organizational