A Comparative Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language

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A COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR

OF THE

ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE;

IN WHICH

ITS F0E3IS AEE ILLUSTRATED

BT THOSE OF THE

SANSKRIT, GREEK, LATIN, GOTHIC, OLD SAXON, OLD FRIESIC,

OLD NORSE, AND OLD HIGH -GERMAN.

By FEANCIS A. MARCH, LL.D.,

PEOFESSOE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPAEATIVB PHILOLOGY IN LAFAYETTE

COLLEGE, ACTUOE OF " METHOn OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE

NEW YORK:

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,FRANKLIN SQUARE.

187 I.

^//^.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year i86g, by

FRANCIS A. MARCH,In tlie Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of

Pennsylvania.

\3\

PREFACE.

The Anglo-Saxon language has been studied at Lafayette

College for many years in the light of modern philology. It

seemed necessary to print, for the use of its students, generallaws of phonology and syntax, with tables of analogous para-

digms, prefixes, sufiixes, and idioms. In preparing this outline

for the press, love of the work has led me to fill it up into a

Comparative Grammar. Other Comparative Grammars have

discussed several languages, each for the illustration of all, and

of language in general ;this book is an Anglo-Saxon Gram-

mar, and uses forms of other tongues and general laws of lan-

guage only so far as they illustrate the Anglo-Saxon.The hope has, however, been cherished that the methods of

Comparative Grammar might be exemplified more fully than

they have yet been for our students, in connection with the

early forms of our mother tongue, and that in this way the

Anglo-Saxon might be associated with the modern Science of

Language, and share its honors.

If this hope should be answered, the book may serve as an

introduction to the masters in whose light it has grown up—

to Jacob GEiiiir, the greatest genius among the grammarians,whose imagination and heart are as cpiick as his reason and

industry, and make his histories of speech as inspiring as poet-

ry—to Francis Bopp, impersonation of pure science, who never

spreads his wings, but who pursues his thread of thought with

unfailing sagacity till he loses it in the islands of the Pacific

—to Geokge Curtius, master of the new and the old, surest

and safest of guides—to Pott—to Kuun and his collaborators.

Special students of Anglo-Saxon must spend their days and

nights with GREiisf, whose Glossary of Anglo-Saxon Poetryfirst made possible a thorough treatment of its grammar, and

to whom this work is every where indebted. Maetzner, and

KocHj and IIeyne liavc also been my constant companions.

1839133

iv PREFACE.

Schleicher, Rumpelt, and IIoltzman I have used most in

phonology and etymology, Becker in syntax.

There are a good many Anglo-Saxon Grammars. The Lat-

in Grammar of -Cleric, written in Anglo-Saxon, is a valuable

Anglo-Saxon Grammar, Other grammars, to the time of Rask,

are mainly arrangements of the declensions and inflections on

the ground of external resemblances, with outlines of syntax.

Some of them are learned works. Rask classified on the basis

of the supposed stems, but with mistaken views. The real re-

lations of the Anglo-Saxon inflections were fixed by Bopp in

fixing those of the Gothic. In German, Anglo-Saxon has a

place in the Comparative Grammars of Grimm, Heyne, and

others, and in the great English Grammars of Maetzner and

Koch. The English still use Rask; Hadley, in "Webster's Dic-

tionary, goes with Grimm. It is pleasant to remember that

1^ Jefferson, who started this study in our colleges in his Uni-

vei^ity"o"f Virginia, made an Anglo-Saxon Grammar.

Labor has not been spared to fit this book for use. The ex

amples have been translated; the citations made easy to verify;

leading rules and groups of facts have been brought together;

indexes have been made;the resources of the printer freely

used to make every thing distinct. Paradigms and the histor-

ical discussion of them are kept on opposite pages, so that they

may lie before the eye together. The type has sometimes been

varied for that purpose, and spaces filled with matter not strict-

ly in the plan, such as the changes from Anglo-Saxon to En-

glish.

I wish to thank William G. MEDLicoTT,Esq., of Longmeadow,• Massachusetts

;he let me take from his precious collection, and

use at my o^^ti home, Anglo-Saxon texts not elsewhere to be

had for love or money. And, finally, all those who find this

book of value should join me in thanks to the Trustees and

Faculty of Lafayette College, who were the first to unite

in one Professorship the study of the English language and

Comparative Philology, and who have set apart time for these

studies, and funds for the necessaiy apparatus to pursue them.

Frakcis a. March.Easton, October 25, 1 809.

CONTENTSS«tion

1, IxTRODUCTiox—Historical.

Page

. 1

PARI" I.

PHONOLOGY.Section Page

General View.

10. Alphabet 4

13. Punctuation 5

14. Sounds 5

15. Accent 6

16. Classes of Vowels C

1 7. Classes of Consonants 7

18. Indo-European Vowel System.. 8

19. Consonant System 8

20. Changes of Sound 9

20. Laws of Letter Change 10

Special Discussions.

21. Classic Anglo-Saxon 11

22. Voice 11

23. Vowels—Anglo-Saxon 11

26. Northumbrian 14

27. Consonants—Anglo-Saxon 15

31. Northumbrian 18

Variatiox.

32. Euphonic Changes 19

.32. Umlaut 19

33. Breaking 20

34. Assibilation 20

Section Papj

35. Assimilation 22

36. Dissimilation 24

37. Compensation 25

Accentual Changes.

38. Gravitation 2G

38. Progression 2G

38. Precession 26

39. Ablaut 28

40. Mimetic Changes 28

EtjTnologic Changes.

41. Shifting 28

Figuration*.

43. Aphieresis SO

44. Apocope 31

45. Elision 31

46. Syncope 31

47. Ecthlipsis 31

48. Prothesis 31

49. Epithesis 31

50. Epenthesis 31

51. Metathesis 32

Contraction.

52. SynjEresis 32

PART 11.

ETYMOLOGY..IS. Definitions 33

59. Classification 34

Nouns.

60. Case Endings .34

64. Declension 3G

67. Gender 37

Strong Nouns.

69. Declension 1. 38

VI CONTENTS.

^'ection

88.

'J I.

rage

Declension 2 44

Ueclcnsion o 48

Northumbrian 41)

Weak Nouns.

P5. Declension 4 50

Northumbrian /< 1

100. Irregular Nouns r>2

101. TroperNames 54

102. Decay of Case Endings 55

Adjectives.

104. Declension Indefinite 50

1 05. Declension Definite 58

106. Varying Forms 58

119. Participles CI

121. Northumbrian CI

132 Comparison C2

130. Pronocxs GO

138. Numerals 73

Verb.

149. Definitions 77

157.

158.

1.59.

1G0.

IGl.

1G2.

227.

228.

230.

231.

240.

24G.

251.

Conjugations: 78

From_A.blaut 79

From Contraction 80

From Composition 81

Tense Stems 82

Mode Suffixes 82

Section

1G3.

IGl.

1G9.

172.

173.

173.

176.

177.

178.

183.

187.

188.

189.

190.

191.

192.

197.

198.

199.

212.

225.

22C.

Derivation,

Definitions 118 253.

Suffixes 119 253.

Stems by Variation 122 2G0.

Formation of Substantives .... 123 262.

Adjectives 125 2G3.

A'erb . 12G 2G4.

Adverb 128 2G8.

Personal Endings 82

Paradi'jms.

Strong Verb.

Indicative Tenses 82

Subjunctive Tenses 8G

Imperative 8S

Infinitive 88

Participle 88

Potential 88

Other Periphrastic 89

Passive Voice 90

Weak Verb.

Active Voice 92

Passive Voice 91

Varying Presents 94

Syncopated Imperfects 95

Syncopated Participle 95

Weak and Strong.

Umlaut in the Present 96

Assimilation 96

Varying Imperfects 98

Summary of Variations 98

Table of Varying Verbs 99

Irregular Verbs 112

Northumbrian 117

Weathering of Endings 118

Preposition 130

Particles 132

Conjunctions 133

Interjections 133

Composition 134

Forms to express Gender 135

PART III.

SYNTAX272. Simple Combinations 137

278. Sentences, Clauses 139

285. Figures of Syntax 141

Nouns.

Uses of Case Endings.

286. Agreement 142 297.

288. Nominative 144 302.

289. Vocative 144 .301.

290.

293.

295.

Accusative :

In Objective Combinations... 145

In Quasi-predicative 147

In Adverbial 148

Dative :

In Objective Combinations. ... 148

In Adverbial Combinations... 151

In Quasi-predicative 152

CONTENTS.

Section

306.

310.

314.

315.

322.

327.

330.

301.

362.

366.

367.

368.

374.

377.

379.

386.

393.

395.

399.

401.

Page

Instrumental 153

Genitive :

In Attributive Combinations.. 153

In Predicative Combinations. . 1 55

In Objective Combinations 155

In Adverbial Combinations... 158

Uses of Prepositions.

Eules 158

Table of. 159

Adjectives.

Agreement 172

Strong or Weak 173

Pkonouns.

Personal 174

Possessive 175

Article 175

Demonstratives 177

Interrogative 178

Relative 178

Indefinite 180

Numerals 181

Adverbs 182

Particles 184

Verbs.

Uses of the Verb Forms.

Agreement 185

Section

406. Kinds of Verbs

407. Voice

411. Tense

Mode :

420. Indicative

421. Subjunctive

In Subordinate Clauses,

422. By Attraction

423. In Substantive Clauses...,

427. In Adjective Clauses ,

428. In Adverbial Clauses

435. Potential

444. Imperative445. Infinitive

450. Gerund

455. Participles

460. Verbals ,

461. Interjections -

Conjunctions.

402. Co-ordinate

467. Subordinate :

468. In Substantive Clauses

470. In Adjective Clauses

471. In Adverbial Clauses

478. Conjunctions omitted

482. Principal Rules of Syntax . ..

Vll

PagB

186

187

187

190

191

191

192

193

193

195

190

197

198

200

201

202

202

205

206

207

207

208

209

arrangement.

483. General Laws 214

484. Predicative Combinations 214

487. Attributive Combinations 216

491. Objective Combinations 218

493. Adverbial Combinations 219

Clauses :

495. Co-ordinate 220

495. Subordinate 220

PART IV.

PROSODY.

496. Rhythm 222

498. Feet 222

499. Verse 222

501. Caesura 223

502. Rime 223

503. Alliteration 223

509. Common Narrative Verse 225

511. Riming Verses 226

512. Long Narrative Verse 227

514. Alliterative Prose 228

Indexes of Words and Subjects 229

ANGLO-SAXON TEXTSCITED IN THIS WORK, AVITH THE LESS OBVIOUS ABBRE-

VIATIONS.

Adrianus and Ritheus, Ettmiiller, 30.

jEdeUrirht, jEdelred, jEdelstdn, Alfred, LL.,Laws in Schmid.

JEdeUt&n, Alfred, verses about, Grein, i.,

352, 35T.

jElfric, Grammar, in Somner's Dictionary.jElfric, Colloquy, in Ttiorpe's Analecta.

Alniosen, Grein, ii.,350=;Religious Poem, Ex.46T.

Analecta Aiigh-Saxmiica. B.Thorpe. Lon-don, 1S46.

Andreds, Grein, ii., 9 ; Verc, i., 1.

Apollonms of Tyre. B. Thorpe. London,1834.

Azarias, Grein, i., 115 ; Ex. 1S5.

St. B. = St, Basil, Hexamerou. Kev. H. W.Norman. London, 1S49.

Bid. = Beda, Ilistoriae ecclesiast. Anglorum.Smith. Cantab., 1T22.

Bid. ^= Beda, Historic ecclesiast. Anglorum.Whelocus. Cantab., 1644.

B.=-Beovmlf, Grein, i., 255.

JSo«f.=Boe</«'M.sdeConsolationePhilosophiae.Cardale. London, 1829. JWet. =;Metra in

Grein.

BotHchaft des Gemahls, GveiD,i., 246= Frag-ments, Ex. 472-475.

Bijrhtnoth, Grein, i., 343.

C.=Caed7non. One figure denotes the line in

Grein ; two, the page and line in Thorpe.London, 1832.

Ch.=Chaucer. Wright. Percy Society. Lon-don, 1847.

Ckrint (Cynewulf's), Grein, 149= To JesusChrist, Ex. 1-103.

CAr. = Chronicle, Anglo-Saxon. B. Thorpe.London, 1S61.

Cnut, LL. Laws in Schmid.Codex Diplomatieim An^i.-Hax. J. M. Kem-

ble, for the English Historical Society. Cvols. Loudini, 1839-1848.

Codex Exoniensia. B. Thorpe, for the Societyof Antiquaries of London. London, 1842.

Codex Vercellensis. J. M. Kemble, for the ^El-

fric Society. London, 1843-56.

Colloquium. JEUric, in Thorpe's Analecta.

Crseftds 7nanj!(J, Grein, i., 204= On the En-dowments and Pursuits of men, Ex. 293.

C&dhert, Thorpe's Analecta, .Vi ; Hom., ii.,

132.

Cyrus, Thorpe's Analecta, 88 ; Oros., ii., 4, 5.

Daniel, Grein, i., 94.

Deiirs Klape, Grein, i., 249=Dcor the Scald's

Complaint, Ex. 377.

Deuteronomy, Thwaites.

Domes dxg, Grein, i., 195=The Day of Judg-ment, Ex. 445.

Durham Book. See Xorthumbrian.

Eddfjdr, Eddmund, Eddwine, LL. Laws inSchmid.

Eddgdr, Eddmund, Poems, Grein, i., 355.

Ecnbert, Confessionale et Poenitentiale, in

Laws of England. B. Thorpe, for the Rec-ord Commission, 1840.

Elene, Grein, ii., 105 ; Vera, ii., 1.

Ettmiiller, Ang.-Sax. poetse atque scriptoreaprosaici. Quedl. et Lipsise, 1850.

Ex.=iCodex Exoniensis, page and line.

Exod,::=Exodus, Thwaites.

Feeder Idrcpidds, Grein, ii., 347=A Father's

Instruction, Ex. 300.

Fata Apostolorum, Grein, ii., 7 ; Verc, ii., 94.

De Fide Catholica, Thorpe's Analecta, 03;

Horn., i., 274.

Pinnsburg Ueberfall in, Grein, i., 341.

Genesii, Thwaites.Gnomici versus, Grein, ii., 339, 346.

Grein, Bibliothek der angelsiichsischen poc-sie in kritisch bearbeiteten Texten und mit

vollstiindigem Glossar herausgegeben vonC. W. M. Grein, Dr. Phil. Cassel and Goet-

tingcn, 1857-1864.

Graff, E. G., Althochdeutscher Sprachschatz,etymol. und grammatisch bearbeitet. Ber-

lin, 1834+.St. Gregorius, Thorpe's Analecta, 44 ; Horn.,

ii., 116.

Gnd.=GMl&c, Grein, ii., 71=The Legend ofSt. Guthlac, Ex. 104, 107.

Sf. G.=Life of Guthlac. Goodwin. London,1848.

neptateuch, Thwaites.

Uickcs, Ling.Vett. Septentrionalium Thesau-rus. Oxon., 1703-1705.

Hlodare, LL. Laws in Schmid.

Hollenfahrt, Chri.tti, Grein, i., 191=The Har-rowing of Hell, Ex. 4.'>9.

JJom.=Homilies of .^Elfric. B. Thorpe, for

the .(Elfric Society. London, 1844.

Hymns, Grein, ii., 280.

Ine, LL. Laws in Schmid.

i/o6, Thwaites; Horn., ii., 446.

John, Thiu'pe or Northumbrian.Josue, Thwaites.Judith, Grein, i., 120 ; Thwaites ; Thorpe's

Analecta, 141 ; il^ttmiillcr, 140.

Juliana, Grein, ii., 62 ; Ex. 242.

Klaije dcr Fmu, Grcin, i., 245=Thc Exile's

Complaint, Ex. 441.

Klipstein, L. F., Analecta Ang.-Sax. 2 vols.New York, 1S66.

Kveia, Das heiligc, Grein, ii., 14.3:=The HolyKood.Verc, ii., 815.

Layamon, Brut Madden. 3 vols. London,1S47.

LL.z=Laws in Sclnnui, q. v., or Thorpe. An-cient Laws and Institutes of England, etc.

2 vols. For the Kecord Commission, 1840.

Lcechdoms, etc. Rev. O. Cockayne. 3 vols.

London, 1864-66.Bi mannii Im.^e, Grein, ii., 142=:A Fragment,moral and religious, Verc, ii., 79.

Leo, H., Alt- una Angelsiichsische Sprach-proben. Halle, 1838.

Luc=Lc.=Luke. Thorpe or Northumbrian.

Mrc. =Marc. Thorpe or Northumbrian.Matthew. Thorpe, North., or Kemble. Cam-

bridge, 1S5S.

llenologium, Grein, ii., 1, or Hickes.J/cf.=Alfred's Meters of Boethius, Grein, Ii.,

295.

3[6d mannd, Grein, i., 210=Monitory Poem,Ex. 313.

Seat, St., Life of, in the Hist, and Antiq. of

Eynesbury and St. Neot's. G. C. Gorham,London, 1820.

j^'icodevnis, Gospel of, Thwaites's Hepta-teuch.

Northumbrian Gospels. C. G. Bouterwek.Gutersloh, 185T. Surtees, 1854-1863.

Numbers, Thwaites.

Orm.^Ormulum, K. M. White. 2 vols. Ox-ford, 1852.

Oros.=^0rosiiis, Bosworlh. London, 1859.

Panther, Grein, 1., 233 ; Ex. 355.

Pharao, Grein, ii., 350=A Fragment, Ex. 468.

Phoenix, Grein, i., 215; Ex. 19T.

Psalms, Grein, ii., 147.

Thorpe. Oxonii, 1835.

Spelman. Londini, 1640.

Surtees Society. London, 1843-44.P. T. S.=Popular Treatises of Science. T.

Wright. London, 1841.

R. (?.=Robcrt of Gloucester. Th. Heamc.London, 1810.

liebhuhn, Grein, i., 237 = A Fragment, Ex.365.

Reimlied, Grein, ii., 137=Riming Poem, Ex.352.

Riehthofen, K. von., Altfriesisches Wijrter-buch. Goettiugeu, 1840.

Riddles =z liaetsel, Grein, ii., 369; Ex.470,etc.

Rierjer, Alt- uud angelsiichsisches Lesebuch.Giesseu, 1861.

Ruine, Grein, i., 248=The Ruin, Ex. 476.

Runenlied, Grein, ii., 351.

Salomon und Saturn, Grein, ii, 354; J. M.Kemble, for the iElfric Society. London,1848.

Satan (Crist und Satan), Grein, i., 129.

Schmui, Die Gesetze der Augelsachseu. Leip-zig, 1858.

Screadunga Ang.-Sax., K. G. Bouterwek. El-

berfeldte, 185S.

Seafarer (Seefahrer), Grein, i., 241, Ex. 306.

Seelen, Reden der, Grein, i., 198=:A departedSoul's address to the Body, Ex. 367.

Somner, Dictionarium Sax.-Lat.-Angl. Ac-cesserunt jElfriei abbatis grammatica Lat.-Sax. Oxonii, 1659.

St. B.—St. Basil. See Basil.St. G. See Guthldc.

Thorpe, B., The Anglo-Saxon version of the

Holy Gospels. London, 1842. See alsoAnalecta and LL.

Thwaites, Edw., Heptateuchus, Liber Job, et

evangelium Nicodemi, Historiaj Juditli

fragmentum. Oxonias, 1698.

Traveler's Song—V Idsid— The Scop's Tale,Grein, i., 251, Ex. 318.

Vercellensis Codex. See Codex Verc.

Mannii pyrde, Grein, i., 207=On the variousFortunes of Men, Ex. 327.

Walfisch, Grein, i., 235-Wbale, Ex. 360.

Wanderer, Grein, i., 2ob ; Ex. 286.ir;d= Vidsid. See Traveler's Song.Wuivier der Kchr'ipfung, Grein, i., 213= TheWonders of the Creation, Ex. 346.

V prefixed, marks a root ;— prefixed, marks a suffix; -suffixed, marks a prefix or stem;

-(- suffixed to the number of a page or section means and the following, elsewhere -\- meanstorji'ther icith; < or > is placed between two words when one is derived from the other,the angle pointing to the derived word : < may be read .from, > tohence; = means equiv-alent tn; : means akin to; over words indicates that they are to be treated in some re-

spect as one.

LANGUAGES OFTENEST MENTIONED. See page 3.

yl .-.?.=Anglo-Saxon.Celtic.

Danish.Dutch.

English.French.Friesic.German.Gothic.Greek.//.—High.Indo-European.

Irish.

Italian.

/:,.=Low.Latin.Lettic.Lithuanic.>f.=Middle.Norman.Norse.0.=01d.O. Fri^s.=0]d Friesic.

0. H. G.=01d High German.

O. A'.=01d Norse.O. S.=01d Saxon.P. /S'.=Parent Speech.Romaic.Romanic.Sanskrit.Saxon.Scandinavian.Semi-Saxon.Slavonic.Swedish.Welsh.

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Grimm, ^.—Deutsche Grammatik. Gottin-

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Grimm, ^A—Gesch. der deutschen Sprache,Leipzig, 1853.

Guent, ^.—English Rhythms. Lond., 1838.

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Kuhii, Adalb.—Zeitschrift fiir vergleichendeSprachforschung auf dem Gebiete desDeutschen, Griechischen undLateiuischeu.Berlin, 1S52-|-.

Kuhn, Adalb.—Beitr.age zur vergleichendeuSprachforschung auf dem Gebiete der ari-

schen, celtischen, und slawischen Sprachen,herausgegeben von Kuhn uud Schleicher.

Berlin, 1868-t-.

Latham, B. &'.—The English Language. 4thedition. London, 1855.

Liming, H. —Die Edda. Mit altnordischerGrammatik, etc. Zurich, 1850.

Maetzner, iTd.—Englische Grammatik. Ber-lin, 1860-1S65.

Marsh, G. P.—The English Language and its

early Literature. New York, 1862.

Massmann, U. F.—Ulfilas. Mit spraehlehrc,etc. Stutt<rardt, 1857.

Meyer, Leo.—Vergleichende Grammatik dergriechischen uud lateinischen Sprache.Berlin, 1861-1865.

Mailer, Max. — Lectures on the Science of

Language. London, 1S61.

Mailer, Max.—Second Series. London, 1S04." " A Sanskrit Grammar for Be-

giuucrs. London, 1866.

Pott, A. J*. — Etymologische ForschuuMUauf dem Gebiete der Indo-GermauiscEeuSprachen. Lemgo, 1833+.

Ra.sk, Erasmtt-s.—A Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Tongue, etc. Transl. from the Dan-ish by B. Thorpe. Copenhag., 1830 ; Lou-don, 1805.

Riimpelt, H. B.—Deutsche Grammatik. MitRiicksicht auf vergleichende Sprachfor-schung. ErsterTheil. Berlin, 1860.

Schleicher, Aug. — Compendium der ver-

gleichendeu Grammatik der Indo-Germaii-ischen Sprachen. Weimar, 1802; 2d ed.,1806.

Schmeller,J. A.—Heliand odcr die altsiichs-

ische Evangelien-Harnionie. Mit Worter-buch und Grammatik. Mon., Stuttg., et

Tubinga;,1840.Schubert, //.—A.-S. Arte Met. Berlin, 1S70.

Somner. See Anglo-Saxon Texts.

Whitney, ]V. Z>.—Language and the Study of

Language. New York, 1867.

Wilson, 11. H.—Sanskrit Grammar for earlyStudents. Lo-;don, 1841.

INTRODUCTION.

1, During tho fifth and sixth centuries, England was conquer-ed and peopled by pagans (Saxons, Angles, Jutes, etc.) from the

shores of the North Sea;the center of emigration was near the

mouth of the Elbe. The conquerors spoke many dialects, but

most of them were Low German. Missionaries were sent from

Rome (A.D. 59V) to convert thcra to Christianity. The Roman

alphabetic Avriting was thus introduced, and, under the influence

of learned native ecclesiastics, a single tongue gradually came into

use as a literary language through the whole natiou. The chief

seat of learning down to the middle of the eighth century was

amonor the Amiles of Korthumberland. The lanc-uage was lona;

called Englisc (English), but is now called Anglo-Saxon. Its Au-

gustan ago was the reign of Alfred the Great, king of the West

Saxons (A-D. 871-901). ^It continued to be written till the col-

loquial dialects, through the influence of the Anglo-iSTorman, had

diverged so far from it as to make it unintelligible to the people ;

then, under the cultivation of the "Wycliflate translators of the Bi-

ble, and of Chaucer and his fellows, there grcAV out of these dia-

lects a new classic language—the English.'

2, The spelling in the manuscripts is irregular, but the North-

umbrian is the only well-marked dialect of the Anglo-Saxon, as

old as its classic period (10th century), which has yet been ex-

plored. The Gospels and some other works have been printed in

it. The common Anglo-Saxon is sometimes called West-Saxon.

3. After the period of pure Anglo-Saxon, there Avas Avritten an

irregular dialect called Semi-Saxon. It has few strange Avords,

but the inflections and syntax are broken up (12th century).

4. The former inhabitants of Britain Avere Celts, so unlike the

invaders in race and speech, and so despised and hated, that they

did not mix. There are in the Anglo-Saxon a handful of Celtic

common names, and a good many geographical names : the rela-

tion of the Celtic language to tlie Anglo-Saxon>is like that of llio

lanfun^-os of the aborigines of America to our present English.A

2 INTRODUCTION.

5. The Anglo-Saxon Avas shaped to litevavy \ise by men wlio

wrote and spoke Latin, and thought it an ideal language ;and a

large jjart of the literature is translated or imitated from Latin

authors. It is not to be doubted, therefore, that the Latin exer-

cised a great influence on the Anglo-Saxon : if it did not lead to

tlio introduction of wholly new forms, either of etymology or

syntax, it led to the extended and imiform use of those forms

which arc like the Latin, and to the disuse of others, so as to

draw the grammars near each otlier. There arc a considerable

number of words from the Latin, mostly conuected with the

Cliurcli;three or four through the Celts from the elder Romans.

G, There arc many words in Anglo-Saxon more like the words

of the same sense ia Scandinavian than like any w*ords which wefmd in the Germanic languages ;

but the remains of the early dia-

lects arc so scant that it is hard to tell how far such words were

borrowed from or modified by the Scandinavians. Before A.D.

900 many Danes had settled in England. Danish kings afterward

ruled it (A.D. 1013-1042). Their laws, however, arc in Anglo-Saxon. The Danes were illiterate, and learned the Anglo-Saxon.Of course their pronunciation was peculiar, and they quickenedand modified phonetic decay. It is probable that they affected

the spoken dialects which have come up as English more than the

Avritten literary language which Ave call Anglo-Saxon.7. The other languages sprung from the dialects of Low Ger-

man tribes are Friesic, Old Saxon, and, later, Dutch (and Flem-

ish), and Piatt Deutsch. The talk in the harbors of Antwerj),

Bremen, and Hamburg is said to be often mistaken by English

sailors for corrupt English. These Low, German languages arc

akin to the High German on one side, and to the Scandina-

vian on the other. These all, with the Moeso-Gothic, constitute

the Teutonic class of languages. This stands parallel with the

Lithuanic, the Slavonic, and the Celtic, and Avith the Italic, the

Hellenic, the Iranic, and the Indie, all of Avhich belong to the

Indo-European family of languages. The parent speech of this

family is lost, and has left no literary monuments. Its seat has

been supposed to have been on the heights of Central Asia. The

Sanskrit, an ancient language of India, takes its place at the head

of the flimily. Theoretical roots and forms of inflection are given

by grammarians as those of the Parent S]:)eech, on the ground

that they are such as might have produced the surviving roots

and forms by knoAvn laws of change.

INTRODUCTION.

8. The following stem shows the order in which these classes

branched, aud their relative age and remoteness from each other.

At the right is given the approximate date of the oldest literary

remains. The lanQ;ua2;es earlier than these remains are made out

like the Parent Speech ;that is,

roots and forms are taken for the

language at each period, which

will give the roots and forms of

all the languages which branch

from it, but not those peculiar to

the other Ian2;ua2;es.

A.

1.

2.

oO.

4.

G.

7.

8.

Indo-European. Parent Speech.Indie. B.C. 1500. Sanskrit Vedas.

Iranic. B.C. 1000. Bactrian Avesta.

Hellenic. Before B.C. 800. Greek.

Italic. B.C. 200. Latin.

Teutonic. 4th Century. JIoeso-Gothic

Bible.

Celtic. 8th Century.

Slavonic. Dth Century. BulgarianBible.

Lithuanic. IGth Century.

9. The following stem shows the manner in which the lan-

guages of the Teutonic class branch after separating from the

Slavonic. The Gothic (Moeso-Gothic) died without issue;the

Low German is nearer akin to it than the High German is. Thebranches of the Scandinavian (Swedish,

L k. Danish, Norwegian) are not represented.

A. Teutonic. Theoretic.

a. Gothic. 4th Century.

/). Germanic. Theoretic.

r. Scandinavian. 13th Century.

d. High German. 8th Century.

e. Low German. Theoretic.

f. Friesic. 14th Century.

fj. Saxon. Tlieoretic.

k. Anglo-Saxon. 8th Century.

i. Old Saxon. 9th Century.

/.-. Piatt Deutsch. Uth Century.

/, Dutch. 13th Ccntuiy.

PAET I.

PHONOLOGY.

10. Alphabet.—The Anglo-Saxon alphabet has twenty-four

letters. All but three are Roman characters: the variations from

the common form are cacographic fancies. P \> (lliorn), and P p

(wen), are runes. D d (edh) is a crossed d, used for the older J),

oftcnest in the middle and at the end of words.

Old Foniif.

SOUNDS OF LETTERS. 5

11. Abbreviations.—The most common ave ^ = and, fj =])oet

(that), X = oitcte (or), and~

for an omitted m or n; as, l;)a=]iam.

12. An Accent (-^) is found in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts,

.but in none so regularly used as to make it an objective part of

an Anglo-Saxon text. It is found oftenest over a long vowel;

sometimes over a vowel of peculiar sound, not long ; seldom, ex-

cept over syllables having stress of voice. Sometimes it seems to

mark nothing but stress. JVIost of the English editors represent

it by an acute accent;the Germans generally print Anglo-Saxon

with a circumflex over all single long vowels in the stem of

words, and an acute over the diphthongs, as bruder, freond. In

tl\is book, to guide the studies of beginners, a circumflex is nsed

over all long vowels and diphthongs, and the acute accent (') over

vow^els only to denote stress. For accented consonants, see § 19.

13. Punctuation.—The Anglo-Saxons used one dot (.) at

the end of each clause, or each hemistich of a poem, and some-

times tliree dots(

:•)

at the end of a sentence. Modern point-

inji is Gfcncrallv used in lu'inted text.

14. Sounds of Letters.— Voicels:

a like

Q PHONOLOGY.—CLASSES OF VOWELS.

15. Accent.—The primary accent in pronuncialiou is on the

first syUablc of every Avord : brod'-cr, brother ; un'-ctld, uncouth.

The first syllable is mostly the root, or a prefix defining it : but prefixes

of verbs and particles are relational. See ^ 41, 4.

Proof of accent comes from alliteration, rhyme, the mark (^ 12), progres-

sion, and other phonetic changes.

Exception 1. Proper prefixes in verbs and particles take no primary accent;

sucli are &, an, and, a't, be, bi, cd, for, ful, ge, geond, in, mis, oil, of, ofer, on,

or, to, |nirh, un, under, pid, pider, ymb, ymbe : an-gin'nan, begin; aet-gad'ere,

together; on-gean', again. So some parasyntheta ; onsseg'ednes, sacn^cc.

(a.) But parasyntheta from nouns, pronouns, or adjectives, retain their ac-

cent: and'-sparian< and'sparu, answer; in'-peardlice< in'-peard, adj., I'n-

ward; ed'nipian< ed'nipe, renewed. Such are all verbs in and-, ed-, or-,

found in Anglo-Saxon poetry ; many adverbs in tai-, etc.

(i.) Many editors print as compounds adverbs+ verbs, both of which re-

tain their accent. Such are those with aefter, bi, big, efen, eft, fore, ford,

from, fram, hider, mid, nider, gegn, geS,n, gen, to, up, iit,pel.

Exception 2. The inseparable prefixes S-, be- (bi-), for-, ge-, are unaccent-

ed : a-lys'-ing, redemption ; be-gang', course. (Parasyntheta from verbs.)

A secondary accent may fall on the tone syllable of the lighter

part of a compound or on a suffix: o'-fer-cum^-an, overcome ; heof-

on-steor'-ra, star of heaveyi,' h'^r'end'e^hevn-'mg ;

leas'ttng',]y'mg.

16. Phonology.— Classes of Vowels.

Peimart Vowels:— a (guttural), i (palatal), u (labial).

SiiOET Vowels :—a, re, e, i, o, u, y. {Open., a, ce, e, o; close., i, u, y.)

Long Vowels :—

a, ^, e, i, 0, il, }'•

Diphthongs :— ea (ia), eo (io), io. {Dialectic, ai, ei, en, oe, 6e, oi.)

Breakings:— {g-sc-row), ea (ia), eo (io), ie, ea (ia), eo (io), ie.

{h-l-r-roio), ea (ia)< a, eo (io)< i, ie.

a-umlaut. i-iimlaut. u-unilaut.

Umlaut:— from i, u,

to e, o.

n, u, ca, eo, a, o, u, ea, eo, n, i,

e, y, y, y, a', e, y, t, f. (o)ea, eo.

Pjrogeession :— Precession—

Descending. 1st term. Ascending.

a-series:— e i, u a, a?, o a, ^e, c 6

i-series:— e i lau-series :— e o u eo, xl ca

Contraction:— from a-j-a, ca+a, ca-fu, co-fa, eo-fe, co-|-u,

{Reduplication, to o, a, ca, eo, c6, c6,

^52.) fj.Q,^^ j_l_j^^ u-fa, n-fa, u-f-i, u+ o, u-j-6,

to eu, o, o, u, o, 6.

CLASSES OF CONSONANTS.

Summary of Phonetic Groups.

A-Gkoup.Weaker. Stronger.

8

Parent Speech

Sanskrit. . . .

Hellenic. . . .

Italic

IS, Indo-European Voicel System.

Gothic. ....-< ai, au)

/ A A

{ t',O

1

A1

i

i

<

i

i, ai

ei

• n

u

V

V

"iII

u, an

ai

aiAe

ai

«t, ft, 01

ai, SQ )

ci, i, eJ

oi, oe, H

ci

ai

au

uuAo

an

OU, £U, OV

au, jju

au, 6 )

tl

ill

au

Ancrlo-Saxon\ For short vowels, see Summary of Phonetic Groups, p. 7,

(For long vowels, see next table.

Teutonic Long 'Votoels. [Short voicels unsJdfted.)

Gothic u ai aa ei in, il?

Old Saxon ... a u e 6 i iu, ie, 11

-n A A AA A A *_J^rriesic e o e, a a i la, tl

Anglo-Saxox . ffi o a cti i eo, }% ^

English ee oo u, oa ca i ee, ou

Old Norse ... a u ei au i io, \', \L

Old II. German a no 6, ei 6, ou i iu, io, tl

German a u e, ei o, au ei eu, ie, au

19. Indo-European Consonant System

Parent Speech k g gh t d dh pSanskrit . k, kh, k', 9 g, g' gh, h

Hellenic . . . . c 7 xItalic c, q g h(g)Goth. & A.-S. h(g) k(c) gO. II. German h(g) k(ch) g(k)

h bh

t, th d dh p, ph 1) bhT C S^ TT ft (j)

t d d(f, b) ])b f(b)

l5(d), d t d f 1) 1)

d z t f(v, b) f b(p).

P. Speech n n

Sanskrit . ri, ii n, nHellenic . 7 r

Italic . . . n n

G.&A.-S. n(g) n

lO.II.G. . u n

ra

mA'

mni

ni

r

r

Pr

r

V

1

1

X1

1

1

j s, sh=s'(s')

J

1, J-'^

s(z),r

s(r)

V

/V

U, V, pw

Grimni's Lav\

1. From Parent Speech to Anglo-Saxon, or from Anglo-Saxon to Old H.

Gei~man,orfrom Old H. German to Parent Speech.—Change each smooth

mute to its rough, rough to middle, middle to smooth.

2. From Anglo-Saxon io Parent Speech, or from Parent Speech to Old

H. German, or from Old H. German to Anglo-Saxon.— Change each

smooth mute to its middle, middle to rough, rough to smooth.

CHANGES OP SOUND. 9

20. Changes of Sound.

I. Variation : exchange of one sound with another,

1. Evphonic: through the influence of other sounds in

the same word or phrase :

fa) Qualitative : through influence of the kind of.^ ' ^

, , . , ^ „ ^ (Assimilation.sound which follows or precedes. . . .

.'{ .

, s ^. ^ T ^1. 1• /I c ^ Dissimilation.

(rj) Ciiange of vowel through influence ot z,

w, or a in the following syllable . . . Umlaut.

(6) Change of vowel through influence of con-

sonants Breaking.

(c) Change of consonant through influence

of z, y Assibilation.

(J) Cliangc of consonant through influence

of other consonants,

(b) Quantitative : through the weight of sound

which follows or precedes Compensation.

(a) Change of quantity or quality.

(h) Change of accent.

2. Accentual: through influence of accent Gravitation.

(a) Strengtliening accented syllables in a certain

way Progression.

(b) Weakening unaccented syllables Precession.

Here also may be placed as appendix.

Changes in root vowels which, in the Teutonic

languages, have come to distinguish tenses of

the verb Ablaut.

3. Mimetic: through influence of other like words:

(a) Conforming to other words, in declension, con-

jugation, etc Conformation.

(b) Simulating etymological relations Simulation.

(c) Sundering, bifurcation, dimorphism.

4. Etymologic uninfluenced by other sounds in the

same language ..... LmUverscMehing. Shifting.

II. Figuration: change of form without change of sense, by dropping, add-

ing, or changing the order of sounds.

1. Dropping- Apothesis.

(a) Beginning a word Aphaeresis.

(b) Ending Apocope.

(c) Witiiin :

(rt) Vowel before a vovrel Elision.

{Ji) Vowel before a consonant Syncope.

(c) Consonant or syllable Ecthlipsis.

2. Adding: Prosthesis.

(a) Beginning a word Prothesic.

(b) Ending I'anujofjc. Epithesis.

(c) Within Epenthesis..",. C/tin/ging I lie urdtr of letters Metathesis.

10 LAWS OF LETTER CHANGE.

IIL Contraction: drawing together vowel sounds to avoid the hiatus,

1. Complete:

(a) Witliin a word Synaeresis.

(b) Between words Crasis.

2. Iiico»ij)lctc: a partial rhythmic union, so that the two

vowels sen'e as one syllable in poetry :

(a) Witliin a word Synizesis.

(b) Between words Syualcepha.

Z,aws of Letter Change.

1. A vowel may assimilate a vowel by "umlaut. § 32.

2. A vowel may change to its breaking before I, r, h, or p,m, f, and after c (sc), f/,

or j). § 33.

3. Between two vowels a surd may change to a sonant or a

mute to a continuous. § 35, 3,

4. If a surd follows a sonant, gemination of the surd is

producecl. § 35, A.

5. If a surd precedes a sonant, the sonant is changed to a

surd of the same organ. § 35, Jj.

G. A mute before another consonant may change to a con-tinuous of the same organ. § 35, 4, h.

7. Before n a surd or m^ite may change to its cognate nasal.

§ 35, 4, c.

8. A vowel may change to a consonant of the same organto avoid the hiatus. § 36.

9. Between two vowels a continuous may change to a

mute. § 36, 2.

10. One of two contiguous mutes may change to a continu-

ous, one of two continuous to a mute. § 36, 3, 4,

11. A consonant may be dropped and the preceding vowel

lengthened by compensation. § 37.

12. A vowel may be dropped and the preceding consonant

doubled by compensation. § 37, 2.

13. Gemination, when final or next to a consonant, is simpli-

fied or dissimilated. § 27, 5.

14. Apothesis is found of a syllable of inflection, and of an

unaccented stem vowel final;before a vowel

;before /, ??,

0'•

f?, ct, St; c, //, ?», 7?, and other consonants. § 44-46.

15. Ecthlipsis is found of d, ct, s, st, before st; of n before d,

/, s ; of c7, r/, /», /, p, mostly between vowels or before a

liquid. § 47.

VOICE—SHORT VOWELS. H16. Epithesis, epenthesis, aud metathesis are used foi-

euphony. § 49-61.

17. Synaeresis may occur after ccthli2)sis of ^ or/i, or the

change ofp to u. § 52.

21. Every classic speech is an ideal ;the folks at home do not

speak it. We have no direct description of the pronunciation of

Anglo-Saxon ;but we have Greek text Avritteu phonetically with

Anglo-Saxon characters (Hickes, Pref., xii.-f ),and know that they

were sounded nearly like the corresponding letters in the Latin

of the missionaries. These characters represent only the most

striking varieties of sound, and those vaguely. There must have

been very great diversity in the folkspeech. The view given in

^ 14 is general or ideal, as seems suited to a practical manual.

An examination of the laws of the language, and its relations to

other languages, Avill suggest further remarks.

22. Voice.—Breath is made sonant by vibrations of the vocal

chords—ligaments which may be stretched across the wind-pipe.

The quality of a vowel depends on the general shape of the cav-

ity containing the vibrating column of air. For a, the tongue lies

flat;for i, Ave breathe or blow into a narrow-necked bottle

;for

U, into a bottle without a neck.

23. Short Vowels.—The simple vowels are «, i, u. Pure a

may be gradually changed to i, if the tongue be slowly raised to-

ward the palate ;to i«, if the lips be slowly closed. Between a

and ^ are a?, e; between a and it, is o; between i and w is y.

The vowel sounds shade into each other like colors.

In any word or stem the same short vowel is found in all the

Teutonic tongues, and any changes are explained by umlaut,

breaking, or other phonetic laws working within the language.

a, ee.—In Anglo-Saxon a is found before a single consonant

followed by a, o, u, e<a/ before m, «, and in some foreign words.

Before m, n, it also suffers assimilation to o: man'^mon; before

a consonant combination beginning with I, r, A, it breaks to ea :

aealm, psalm ;before a syllable containing i or e < ^, i-umlaut

changes it to e: liladan hle{de)st, to load; u-umlaut changes it

to ea : bealii^ bale;

in other situations, words having a in other

languages show a regular shifting of « to m ; thus, in monosyl-

lables ending in a single consonant: ^a?e, back; in polysyllables

before a single consonant followed by c: bwcere, baker; before

12 LONG VOWELS.

consonant combinations, especially those beginning -with f or 8 :

crix'fl, craft. In the folkspeech the sound of « must liave varied

through the shades of sound from a in father nearly to a m fiat

on the one side, and to o in hot on the otlicr. Accented d often

changes in English to the sound of a in name, through progres-

sion, i-umlaut, or shifting : viacian > mdken > make.

e.—This is i-umlaut of «; temia^i, iMnc; a-umlaut of ^ .• Jielp-

rtn<root MI}), help; or a light toneless sound which may be the

ghost of any sound out of which the blood has ebbed through

gravitation : gife, Gothic gibos, gibdi, giba, gift. The same wordis sometimes written with le and e, or ea and e: dseg^ cleg, day;

seaJi, sch, saw. In the folkspeech the sounds varied from nearlya drawling dci (as in ddrth, earth), through e in met, to the light

sound of German final e, French mute e.

i.—Tliis simple sound holds its ground well;but a-umlaut

sometimes changes it to e : p(fect, weaves, pi. pefad; u-umlaut

and breaking both change it to eo : Urn, limb, pi. leonm ; feohte,

fight. It exchanges in Avriting with y, and sometimes with ea:

miht, myJit, meaJit, might. Perhaps an .a-element was in some

Avords creeping in, as in English long i (=a+z), cniht, Northum-brian cnaiht, knight.

O.—This is ti'eated as u-umlaut of a, or a-umlaut of n, or an

assimilation of a by in or n : roclor, Old Saxon raclur, heaven;

curon, coren<icora7i, chose, chosen; comb, comb. In folkspeech

it varied from o in not to nearly u in fall.

U, y.—Like

-i,u holds its ground. It changes in writing with

o on one side, and y on the other;and probably varied in folk-

speech from xt in nut to nearly the French %i. y is i-umlaut of u

and ea, sometimes u-umlaut of i, exchanging with eo. It was a

favorite letter with the jjenmen, and is often found for /, and

sometimes for e, w : cyni?ig, king; eald, ylclest, old, oldest;

ceorl > cyrlisc, churlish; lyden, leclen, Latin

; gyst-sele, gvest-sele,

guest-hall.

24. Long" Vowels.—Two like short vowels uttered as one

sound make a long vowel: aa=:u, ii = i, uui=ti.

Long vowels are produced by compensation, progression, and

contraction.

A long sound is, however, different in quality as well as quantity from

its short. The anticipation of the double utterance affects the position of

the organs. A given long vowel may, in fact, arise from the coming togetli-

er of unlike vowels: tiuCjiuv from npuoitiv; nor do two like vowels alwa3's

LONG VOWELS. 13

give their long : Greek te give n, oo give ov. The Anglo-Saxon long vow-

els vary in kind (quality) from their short ;a prolonged is not exactly a, nor

e prolonged exactly e. We give the long mark, therefore, whenever the

quality of sound is that of the long letter, though the vowel may be unaccent-

ed, and the sound obscure.

Proof of length is found in accent (§ 12) and gemination in the

manuscripts ; presumptive evidence is also found in the origin

and relations of vowels, and the analogy of other languages.

That a letter is not accented is no proof that it is not long ; but when one

is abundantly marked in good manuscripts, it must be held long. The pro-

nouns me, J)e, he are abundantly marked, and therefore we give them as

long, though analogy is perhaps against it. These words, however alliterate

in poetry, fall in with a general law as to accented open syllables which has

a plain physiological basis, and the corresponding words are long in English,

and were long in Latin.

Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long, except enclitics and

proclitics, which are really affixes or prefixes to other words.

a corresponds in part to Gothic ^, in part to Gothic di, and

has oftenest passed into English 6 : Gothic hdim-, Anglo-Saxon

ham, home, Gemi. helm; in pa, a, etc., it is progression of a. It

varied through d in far, toall, Ger. mahnen, nearly to 6 in hoine.

2b corresponds to the same Gothic letters as d, but comes into

English with the sonud oi ee : Gothic sdi-, Anglo-Saxon sie, sea,

German see. It is i-umlaut of d, and simple shifting also, whicli

may be stopped by a following m, n: hdte, hvbt{e)st, hivt{e(i), call,

callest, calleth.

e is i-umlaut of 6: f6t,fet{e), foot, feet; simple shifting of

edyto-: heran, hear. It springs also from contraction of old re-

duplications, from lengthening of open monosyllables : me, me;

/i^, he; J)^, thee; and from compensation: peii<ipcgn, thane:

perhaps here also fj^<.fjer, ye; pe<^pec, thee; and other such

pronouns. It likes in or n after it, and in such cases may stand

for an original a or A. It varied in folkspeech from nearly e in

there to ey in they, with the final y-sound {ee) pretty plain. It

goes over to ee completely in English. (Progression.)

i corresponcls to the i of other languages. It has risen in

English under the accent to the sound of d + i (§ 38, 1) : hUun,

bite; drifan, drive. It exchanges in the writing with -g,

and

must have sounded much like it.

6 corresponds to Gothic 6. It springs from contraction of

three a -elements, or two «- elements and a ?<- element: fa.

i-i- Dli'IlTliONGS.—NOKTIIUMBKIAN VOWELS.

hmi^/o/i, catch; gefcohan^gefeon^ \'c']o\cc', from progression:

mona, Old IT. German 'mCtno, moon ; sona. Mid. II. German sun,

soon. It liad the sound of o in t07ie, with a tendency in a labial

direction, Avhich has brought it to English oo. § 08, 1.

U corresponds to 'd in other dialects. It is often strengthenedfrom i( under the accent: 7>?1, thou; w^, now ;

sometimes springs

from compensation : onild, Gothic mtwps, mouth. It changes in

English under the accent to ou : hiis, house. (Progression.)

y is i-umlaut of•?"?,

of co, and ofeil: nms, mi)s{e), mouse, mice;

lijge < root ledg^ lie; hf/r{i)an < root hear, hear. § 38, 1.

25, Diphthongs.—Two unlike vowels heard in one syllable

make a diphthong. The forms ca (la), eo (io), ie, are generallycalled breakings ; ed, id, eo, io, ie, are often true diphthongs, and

then they differ etymologically from breakings. For Breakings,sec § 33.

ea, ia. = Gothic dii > a'* > ht > ed. It is found in many po-*'

sitions: final; before r, li, m, n, p : fred, lord; tedr, tear; hedh,

high ; dream, dream; ledn, loan

; bredp, brow. It is also found

as a <7-.sc-breaking of d : gedfon, gave ; scedn, shone. It is an

unstable combination, tending to d > English or to e > English

ee, as more or less of the c-sound works in. The prevailing set is,

on the whole, to e: stedp, step-cir\, steep.

ed, io = Gothic in. It is also an assimilation of i, %, by p or

I: treop, Gothic triva, tree; feol. Old H. German fUa, mud ; ap-

parently also by Ji, g ; but in these cases a change of h, g, to pmay be supposed : plhan '^ped7i, depart ; frig, freo, free. It is

a peculiar progression from i final (perhaps here also a labial

sound is to be added) : Ijeo, Old 11. German hi, bee. It often

also springs from contraction, especially of the reduplication, ex-

changing with ^. It exchanges in writing with id. It is found

often for ed. It changes to iX: sxipan, sup; silcan, suck. It

must have had a peculiar sound or sounds— an unstable combi-

nation, tending to w > English ic in si(2) on the one side, and to

^> English ee on the other. The prevailing set is, on the whole,to H. A similar sound is produced by (7-sc-breaking from 6: seed,

shoe;but the e is lighter,

ie is used for ed, ed.

26. Northumbrian Vowels.—a is often used where An-

glo-Saxon has ea, sometimes where it has e, i, eo, u.

SB interchanges with ea: ml, eall, all, all;

vn for e is abundant;e for a? frequent ; oe for e frequent. Assimilation of if^o < \oe.

CONSONANTS. 15

icu< loi^ is found : tcosa, Anglo-Saxon pesan, to be; tcictta, Au-

gloSaxon pitan, to know; also id<iil: 5?<{/*, Anglo-Saxon siJf,

self; sulfer^ Anglo-Saxon seolfor, Gothic silubr, silver.

a is often wi'itteu aa/ it exchanges with <'ey is a i)rogression

of «, ea, before liquids. © is found written aae. e is seldom

i-.umlaut of o, is used sometimes for eo (lautverschiebung), oft-

ener for ic, Gothic t^, oftenest for eel. 6e is i-umlaut of 0, or

represents Anglo-Saxon ^ not umlaut.

ea interchanges Avith eo, a favorite sound which displaces

sometimes Anglo-Saxon e, i. ea interchanges Avith eo. io for

eo is frequent ;ea for le. There are found ai for z, ei for e or

ic, eu for eop, and oi.

27. Consonants.—The stream of breath is stopped in speech

in three main ways : by contact bctAveen the root of the tongueand the palate (a round surface against a hollow one), the tip of

the tongue and the teeth (a sharp against a flat surface), and the

upper and lower lips (two flat surfaces). If a sonant breath be

stopped, the sonant letters, g guttural, d dental, h labial, are j^ro-

duced. If we blow instead of breathe, a slight change is made

tlu'oughout the vocal organs : viz., the glottis is thrown open, the

chords no longer sound, and the shape which the organs take at

the places where they meet and part is varied : hence the smooth,

surd letters, c{k) guttural, t dental, ^j)labial. These are mutes.

If the breath be not wholly stopped, continuous letters, i guttu-

ral (palatal), d and Enghsh Z dental, (English v) and 7? labial, are

made; or, if the stream be blown, h guttui-al, /), 5, dental,/, ///>,

labial. If, when the breath is stopped, the veil be raised Vv'hich

separates the nose from the pharynx, the resonance of the nasal

cavity gives n in ng guttural, n dental, m labial;

I and r are

trills. Each consonant stands for two sounds: viz., the closing

of the organs, c^^/ and the opening of the organs, ^;a. For a

fourth kind of stop, see Assibilation, § 34.

1. A stop of the first kind, which will pass for a g, may be made anywhere from the very root of the tongue forward to the middle of the mouth.

Some nations make their g in one place, some in another. Further for-

ward it becomes impossible to stop with a humped tongue, and the tip comes

into play. This may be touched, so as to make a d, any where from the

front .(/-stop, or even further back, to the meeting of the teeth. Just where

g and d run into each other is i consonant (English ?/). Some tribes count

gutturals and dentals as all one. The Sandwich Isla,nders have to be taught

to tell c from if, and possiI)ly the Roman populace may have had a similar

habit. Sec Assibilation, § 34.

10 GUTTURALS.

2. h,p, ct,f. are pronounced as spirants, but are, liistorically, representa-

tives of c/j, til, dh, ph, which were once pronounced as separate letters (c.

g., ch as kh in icork-housc), and hence are called rough or aspirate mutes,

a name retained in historical grammar bv their representatives. See Table,

SS17.

3. r is described as a trill ot the uvula in the Northumberland burr, and

of the tip of the tongue in English and German ; ^ as a trill of the side

edges of the tongue No trill is heard in English in America. In r the tip

of the tongue is raised and moved slightly vviiilc the breath is poured over

It. In I the tip is raised to the dental stop, and the breath issues freely be-

tween its sides and the cheeks.

4. Gemination is the doubling of a consonant. Physiologically it arises

from an analysis of a consonant by whirli the sound made in closing the stop

is united with the foregoing vowel, and t'mt made by opening is united witii

the following vowel. Or it arises from combining two complete consonants,

i. e., shutting and opening the organs twice : bac^--/iitclien. The last is sel-

dom heard in English. Historically it springs from gravitation (^ 38) or a.s-

similation (^ 35). It is most common with liquids and s. A real gemination

can not occur at the beginning or the end of a word, nor before a second

mute, nor is it easy after a long vowel. For the orthographic rule in Anglo-

Saxon, see ^ 20, Rule 13. Double o-is written eg, double/, bb.

5. Dissimilated Gcminaiioji.—When gemination of a nasal (nz, v) v.'oulJ

occur before / or r, the trill calls for so much breath that we drop the nasn!

veil, and that changes the latter half of m into b, of n into d. In some

other cases a continuous consonant or vowel is dissimilated for force of utter-

ance : ss'^st, iwiiymp, nii^nt, t^ig, %i or p~^vp, are found; spindcl

<Cspinl ; timber<^timr, Goth, timrjan. ^^28,36,81.

28. Gutturals {Palatals) : c, g, h, i, n. c has given place in

English before <3, ?, y, to h (a graphic change merely) or to ch

(Assibilation, § 34). This cJi appears in late manuscripts, and tlio

assibilation was doubtless begun in the folkspeech earlier; but

the new sound does not show in the alliteration, and should not

be given for Anglo-Saxon c. The assibilation of sc> English sA,

is excluded for similar reasons, ct^ht, § 3G; ciycc, § 37;

cg= gg, § 37;

5C = a;, § 51.

g conies into English as g in go, give ; as clg in edge (Assibi-

lation, § 34) ;as y in youth. It stands in the place ofJ (= En-

glish y) of other languages in three places: (1.) Beginning the fol-

lowing Avords: gc, ye; fjeta\ gcr., year; gedra, yore; geoc, yoke;

geogud, youth ; geol, yule ; geond, yond ; geong, young ; gcsc,

yes ; gist, yeast ; git, yet. Compare Sanskrit juvan, Latin juvc-

nis, Gothic jugg, German jung, Norse <ingr, Anglo-Saxon geong,

iimg, English young.

DENTALS. 17

(2.) "Within Avords in the place of i {=j) before a vowel in in-

flection : nerian= tierc/aji, to save;

inserted : hijie = h>Jige, love;

ge inserted : eardian = eardigecm, to till.

(3.) Final for i: hii — hig^ they.

All these changes seem natural if g in these words be pronounced as the

English y. it is certain that these words were at all times often so pro-

nounced : we find lung in Anglo-Saxon as well as geong, nerian as well as

nergan. But words like geong alliterate abundantly in Anglo-Saxon poe-

try with words beginning with g hard, and not with other kinds of words be-

ginning with io, ia, or another vowel;while in Norse the words beginning

with i, J, alliterate only with vowels. It seems certain, therefore, that this

ge sounded more like a hard g than like e or i before a vowel, which was

nearly the English g. It is better to accept the fact that a guttural breath-

ing was inserted between the vowels of lujie by those who wrote lufige, than

to soften out the g to try to simplify the phonology ; g and j run into each

other. Words in g hard in Anglo-Saxon run into y in Old English, and re-

turn to g in English : forgitan, foryctcn, forget ; gifan, yeven, give ; geat,

1/ate, gate, etc. These are dialectical variations, but real differences of

sound. In Anglo-Saxon g had such sounds as in modern German.

h represents the guttural rough (ch) and the simple breathing.

They were both in the folkspeech originally ;both are now given

in the dialects of England. The guttural is not, however, recog-

nized as separate in alliteration or otherwise in the literature of

the Anglo-Saxons any more than in the English, and may be omit-

ted from the literary, though not from the comparative grammarof both. It is sounded in initial hi, /m, hr. hyg, h yp, § 35,

3;A < ^, § 35, 4, J

;ht< ct, § 36, 3

;h dropped, Apocope, § 44

;

Ecthlipsis, § 4Y. x producing breaking = hs.

i consonant goes into g, from the most forward utterances of

which it is distinguished by being not so tight a stop. It is found

sometimes, especially in foreign proper names, alliterating with g,

and should then be pronounced like g.

n in nc, ng (Goth, Greek gg), is the English guttural nasal.

29. Dentals {Lingucds) : t, d, J), ct, s, I, r, n. t<dd, § 3C,

5; < td, § 35, JB; st < sd; t < d, Assimilation, § 35.

d for d between two vowels seems to indicate a disinclination

to begin a syllable with d: ld<ld; dd<Cdi, ^ 31 : d and J) are

not uniformly used in any of the manuscripts; there were cer-

tainly two sounds, as in English, The uniform use of7> beginning-

words and d elsewhere is calligraphic, not orthographic. The

real sounds may yet be made out; compare §§ 194, a; 41, (3),

English surds indicate A.-Sax, surds, unless they spring from other

B

18 LABIALS.—NORTHUMBRIAN CO>SONANTS.

dialects than those Avhicli had most influenced the' Anglo-Saxon.Assimilation by ?, § 35

; breaking by /, r, § 32.

r<5, § 41; apocope of?*, § 44; metathesis of r, § 51.

S and z undistinguished, but see § 189, b. n, Ecthlipsis, § 47.

oO. Labials : ^^, b,f\p, m. p begins only words of foreign

origin, b changes to /in the middle and end of words, exceptnib and bb < bi. The Old Saxon, Friesic, and Norse have the

same tendency to change the middle mute labial b to the contin^

nous /"in the middle of words, i. e., not to close the mouth tight-

ly between two vowels. The Old Saxon and Friesic have both

surd and sonant continuous forms,/ and English v. This Anglo-Saxon /"is written u {v) sometimes {/diicade, B., 1799), and it has

changed in English to v : heauoci, heafod, head; heo/on, heaven

;

pulf, pidfds, wolf, wolves. The folkspeech had a sonant contin-

uous labial, and it may be distinguished in the weak verbs. See

§ 189, b. The runicp is like the English lo, but must have varied

in the dialects as it does now in England. In 'm\t'ia\ pi, pr (often

parasitic), and at the end of words, it must have been spokenwith a nearer approach to closing the mouth. Bede represents it

in Latin by vm, thS Normans by gu / the parasitic v, g plainly in-

dicate a vigorous uttei'ance. It changes to u when final and pre-

ceded by a consonant : bealu, genitive becdpes, bale. Latin u and

11 were the same letter; the present separation of them was com-

pleted only in the 18th century, w is of German origin ;it had

come into common use in Semi-Saxon. Assimilation ofp and w,

§ 35, 2;mm < mi, § 37, 2.

31. Northumbrian Consonants:

(1.) Gutturals.— C and g interchange: finger, fincer, finger;

dringes, he drinks; cc and p: getreuad = getiyccad / c ^ h,

c^ch, see h. g assimilates a preceding e or e to ei: deign,

Anglo-Saxon pegii, thane; weig, Anglo-Saxon peg, way ;

in such

cases there may be ecthlipsis of g : maiden, Anglo-Saxon onveg-

den, maiden;

or ^ > h : fifteUi, Anglo-Saxon fiftig, fifty ; g <ip :

driga, Anglo-Saxon pripa, three; g and i consonant have the

same relations as in Anglo-Saxon, h.— Prothesis of A is found

in hecdd, old, etc.;

often before / and r : hlddla, to lead; hroue,

row; apothesis in Z((/e, Anglo-Saxon /iZcT/", loaf, etc. Ecthlipsis

between vowels is the rule, and occurs elsewhere, c^ h and

g^ h, with a change of the h to ch, are common at the end of

words: Anglo-Saxon mec^ meh, mech, me; occasional within

words: micil, mihil, m.ichll, much. Bcda uses ct for ht.

EUPHONIC CHANGES.—UMLAUT. 19

(2.) Dextals.— t for d is found: Jieafot^ head; apocope in

second singular of verbs : slvcpes dx% sleepst thou. Apocope of

d is common: hselen <.hpelend, savior; assimilation of Id: ma-

iiigfallice, manifold. There is no p; d and d interchange:

dagds^ dagds, days ; brodor, brodor, brother. Ecthlipsis of doccurs when the pronoun dit, thou, agglutinates with its verb:

sjjrecestu for sprecest d\i^ thou speakest. d final changes to s:

ci(oedas<,ci(oedad,thej say. dyz: bezere, ha^tist. Liquids.—

Apocope of n is the rule in the infinitive, and frequent elsewhere;

ecthlipsis before d,f, s, as in Anglo-Saxon. Metathesis of r is

more common than in Anglo-Saxon ; ecthlipsis occurs in bg-

gen < byrgen, tomb; epenthesis in efern, evening, and its com-

pounds. Metathesis of 1 and of n occurs, s < d, see over.

(3.) Labials.—b suffers apocope: f?»;;?, dumb, etc.; b<f:

feber, Anglo-Saxon fefor., fever, f > w and ub : dioid, dioubol.,

Anglo-Saxon deofol^ devil, where u is perhaps English v. For

p are written n, nu, lo. Initial p before n, and sometimes oe, is

left unwritten : tilfz=indf,\;o\f; oeg =icoeg^ -way. Prothesis is

found : tcoxo, ox;and epenthesis : smmder, sunder. Initial /m,

su, do not contract with a following vowel, as in Anglo-Saxon,

except the parts of ciana, cnman, come. Ecthlipsis of to occurs

before oe : coed., quoth ;and between two vowels

;final it be-

comes a vowel, or drops, or changes to g.

The manuscripts are late, and the whole aspect of the dialect

indicates a revolutionary period of speech.

EUPIIOXIC CHANGES.VAEIATION.

32. Umlaut is a change of vowel through the influence of

a, «>^, or i(, in the following syllable.

The conception of a sound tends to put the vocal organs in a position to

utter it. We conceive the later sounds in a word wliile yet speaking the

former ; hence the tendency to utter a sound between the two. No umlaut

shows in Gothic. Old II. German has most a-umlaut; Norse, u-umlaut.

(1.) 2i-umlaut.—The conception of a coming a affects the ut-

terance of i, so as to produce the intermediate sound ey so it

changes u to o: helpan <.voot hilp, help; boga<iroot bug, how.

It sometimes changes i to eo : nid, neodan, neath; leqfad., live.

iX,

EUPHONIC CHANGES.—ASSIBILATION. 21

1. Historical.—These sounds are not recognized in the Parent Speech,

Latin, Greek, Gothic, or other most ancient alphabets ; and hence, though

they are now found almost all the world over, they are generally represented

by combinations of the earlier letters, and treated as compound consonants.

They seem as a matter of fact to have been contrivances to take the place

of certain difficult combinations of the simpler sounds. Among the Indo-

European languages, the Slavonic have most assibilation; the descendants

of the Latin come next.

It was common in the folkspeech of Rome; ci interchanges with ti be-

fore a, o, zi, in the oldest remains of Latin. It is not certain whether this

springs from a dialectic adoption of the imperfect articulation common everywhere among children, or from some peculiarity of the Roman populace, e.^-.,

one like that of the Sandwich Islanders (^ 27, 1). When the Germans were

sifted over the Romanic regions, the chaos of language favored the assibi-

lations, and they spread in various modifications over Europe, as far as the

Romanic speech had influence.

The English has the following :

Dentals.—ti^ tsh: Anglo-Saxon /(?izan> English /eic/j ; Latin qiies-

Z/on/j> English question.

Latin ?2aiMra> English nature. (English u=zi-\-u.)

ti>5/i: Latin nationis'^'EngMsh nation.

Qi^dzh: Latin soZJ£?arJM5> English soldier; Latin modula-

i/o?ii5> English modulation.

si>sA; Ijdiim pensionis'y- YingWsh. pension ; Latin 5ecw?*u5>

English sure.

si (=zy )^zh: Latin thesaurus> English treasure.

zi> zh : Anglo-Saxon grasian >• English graze '^grazier.

Gutturals.— ci^tsh: Latin ca5/?-wm ^ Anglo-Saxon ceasto- > English

Chester {Win-cheste)-) ; Anglo-Saxon yecian,yei2a?i]> En-

glish fetch.

ci^ sh: Latin occa?2?/5> English ocean. c^ s : Latin ct-

t77/5> English civil.

sce>5/i.- Anglo-Saxon scacan'^ sceacan^FjUgVish shake.

sci> s : Latin scientia> English science.

* gi>^/cA; Anglo-Saxon ecg (stem e^g-i) ^English edge; Latin

"•encn5> English gender.

gi>y: Goi\\\c gards : Anglo-Saxon ,§-ea?-(i> English T/ort?.

i^dzh: Latin iocus> Italian gioco> English jo/ic.

The beginnings of the following arc in Anglo-Saxon : sc before a and o

has often changed to see in the oldest manuscripts : sceacan for scacan, shake.

The sound of sh for sc in O. H. German first appears in the eleventh cen-

tury, and afterward rules in High German. As for the Low German, sh is

22 EUPHONIC CHANGES.—ASSIMILATION.

not yet in Dutch, but in Phitt-Dcutsch it has become common as in Englisli.

There is no indication in the alhtcration that see is pronounced sh, nor can

it be received as current literary speech. In the Anglo-Saxon of the, elev-

enth century, ch for c begins to appear: chihK^cild, child. This is also

outside of the literary speech, and springs from foreign (French) influence.

The other changes are still later, and more purely Romanic in their source.

The only German assibilation is sh, and that is later than classic Anglo-Saxon. <

2. Physiological.— {a.) Assibilation of Dentals.— t-|-i: Hon in qucs-

tio7i. Trying to sound io as one syllabic tends to change i to y. In t the

tip of the tongue is pressed to the upper gum, and the voice blown ;in y the

tip of the tongue is dropped to the lower gum, and the middle is humped uptoward the palate, and the voice breathed. In tsh the tip is inverted and

turned up to tlie hard palate, and the voice blown. This is a compromise in

two points of view,—as to the place of the stop (between the f-stop and the

y-stop), and as to the kind of stop (inverted tongue against hard palate— a

roundish against a flatish surface ; see ^ 27) ;but it is not a mechanical re-

sult of an attempt to go rapidly through t-\-i/: it is a quite new way to make

a sound which the ear will accept as a substitute for the two. The explana-

tion of d-{- i {soldier) is the same, except that the voice in cl and in dzh is

breathed instead of blown. The explanation of s+ ^ {pension), and of s-j-i

{grazier), is the same as that of t-\- i and d-{-i, except that in these last

the stop is not complete either in blowing s and sh, or breathing z and z?i.

In the change of see to sh, the c goes to h, and only gives strength to the

compromise oi s-\-y.

{b.) The English Assibilation of Gutturals, as though dentals, springs

from defective articulation. The root of the tongue never works as easily

as the more flexible tip. Children say, and Anglo-Saxon children said, tan

for can, tin for cin ; and chin (tshm) is a not unnatural compromise between

tin and cin. When the organs are placed for y, or i, or e, the back of the

mouth makes the narrow neck of a bottle, ^ 22, and it is hard to raise the

root to make a c (k) stop. Hence c (k) before y, i, e, is always unstable;

and hence a child will learn to say can before cin, and will be more likely

to compromise on chin than chan. The most natural result, however, of the

difficulty of making this stop is to make an imperfect stop, and give the aspi-

rate h, ch, instead of c(k), and this tendency has prevailed in the Germanic

tongues. From this aspirate a foreign influence easily leads to the assibi-

lated palatals sh, zh, etc. Aphaeresis of</ takes place in geard^ yard,

compare § 28;a parasitic d (dj) precedes i, j in Latin words : possibly

a

guttural g preceded in Italian the present sound of gi as dzh, in gioco<CLatin iocus, joke ;

Giove <C Latin love, Jove. Latin proper names of this

sort alliterate abundantly in Anglo-Saxon poetry with words in g hard. ^ 28.

35. Assimilation is the act by which letters make each other

alike. It includes breaking and umlaut, as well as assibilation.

Other chano-es of this kind are called assimilation in a narrower

sense.

EUrilONIC CHANGES.—ASSIMILATION. 23

(1.) A vowel may assimilate with a vowel, (a.) Umlaut, § 32.

(b.) The vowels become the same : peorod, pered, crowd; pu-

diipe, vidiia^ widow; pelerds, peolords, Gothic vairilo, lips; nal-

las, nsellces<. needles <Cne + ecdles^ not at all.

(2.) A consonant assimilates a vowel. Consonants of each or-

gan tend to change adjacent vowels to the vowel of that organ.

(a.) Labials put the moutli in such a position that it turns vow-

el sound to or toward ic. The strongest is p. It produces

a change of pa, pa, (pe), pi, pi, ap, ip,

to o;

6; (po, u) ; peo ; pu, u

; cap ; eop :

cpam, epdmon > com, comon, came;Northumbrian posa, Anglo-

Saxon pesan, to be; pita ypeota, wise man

; piht ypu/it, whit ;

dedp, dew; tredp, Gothic triva, tree. Compare § 52. Before m

(n), sometimes a>o, iyeo ; beforef {p, b), ayea, iyeo: camb>

comb; himyheom ; e(://or>Latin apei\ho^v; g}fa>geofa, giver ;

compare § 32; -am'>-um, %1\,b. Note also the diphthongs, § 25.

The gutturals c (sc), g, place the organs so as to call out a

parasitic «-sound (breaking, § 33), while h, and the Unguals 1

and r, especially when followed by another consonant, had a burr

(•ili-sound), which brought a preceding i to eo (§ 23), Northum-

brian u: silfysulf, § 26. For i> eu before A, g, see § 25.

In Latin I brings in u most,—?;?, b,p,f, sometimes: nebula, vi(l>i\r] ;

spatula, (TTrardXr} ; Hecuba, 'Ek(1j3i]. The dentals bring in z : machina, fii]-

Xavrj ; Masimssa, Maaavdaaris. The r likes e before it : camera, Kajidpa ;

cineris<icinis.

(3.) A vowel assimilates a consonant, (a.) Assibilation, § 34.

{p.)Between two vowels a surd may change to a sonant, or

a mute to a continuous ; h>g, s>r, d=pyd, gyp, hpyp, byf:

sloh, slogon, I slew, they slew; ceds, curon, chose

; cptved, cpscdon,

quoth ; bUgian, bitpian, to dwell; habban, hafact, have, haveth

;

for seah, ssege, sdpe, saw, § 197.

(4.)A consonant assimilates a consonant. This occurs in An-

o-lo-Saxon mainly when, by composition, inflection, or apothesis,

two consonants are brought together which can not be easily

pronounced in the same syllable. The most common case is the

comino- to<^ether of a surd and sonant. One can not breathe and

blow at once.

(a.)When surd and sonant letters are brought together, the

surd assimilates the sonant.

2i EUPHONIC CHANGES.—DISSIMILATION.

A. If the surd follows the sonant, a gemination of the surd is

produced. In this way Jf, ss, ss, are sometimes produced from

bf, ds, ds: qfna}i<CLai\n ob-{-fero, of-

fer;

bliss < bltds, blids, bliss. And by simplifying gemination

( § 27, 5), dst > 5^, dst > st : cpidst > epist, quothest ;

hledst >hlest^ loadest.

Exception (1). dp is often written </(/, according to the ortho-

graphic rule that d is always to be used for p within a word :

od pe, oppe, odde, or. (2). ndst changes to 7itst, according to the

analogy of case J?, through the influence of the n, which supportsthe d; gs > cs=x^ a favorite letter

;tns > ns, § 130, c.

B. If the surd precedes the sonant, the sonant is changed to

the nearest surd of its own organ. Thus,

cd, hd, 7?c?, fd, sr, sd, sd, td,

to ct, M, pt^ ft., ss, st, st, tt: socde^soete^sohte {^ SQ),

sought; stqyde "> stqyte, evecied; dnf{e)dy drift, dr'iveth, ^ 194;

pisreypisse, of this; cysde'yeyste, kissed

; c^sd^cpst, chooseth;

gretde > grette, greeted. After this analogy, gs'^cs = x, ndst >?itst: agse'^axe, ashes; stendst^stentst, standest.

And by simplifying gemination (§ 27, 5), final td'yt, std^st:

blttd~ybltt, sacrificeth; hirstd^biTSt,\>wc^i^\X\', and after a con-

sonant: ehtde^ehte, persecuted. In st^ssin piste^pisse,\{\?,t,

the s is strong enough to take an explosive over to its continuous.

(5.) An explosive consonant before another consonant maychange to a continuous of the same organ.

1. The explosive is a complete stop, and hence it is not easy to make anysound but s after it in the same syllable.

2. This fact may work Assimilation or Dissimilation, § 36, 3.

gd^hd ; gstyhst : beige, bllhst, bilhd, to be angry; ng stands.

cs<hs: dcsie^ dhsie, VLsk; cd>hd: seedy sehd, seeks, Hask.

(c.) Before n a surd or an explosive may change to its cognate

nasal; fn^7nn, gn^ng: nefne^ nemne, unless; stefn'ystemn,

stem; gefrignciWy gefringan, Xo inquire. Compare («) and (J)

above. The veil is raised for the n an instant too soon, §§ 27, 28.

36. Dissimilation.— (l.) A vowel may change to a conso-

nant to avoid the hiatus with another vowel; «'></, u^p : ne-

riany-nergcm, to save; lirfian^lif/iga?i, lirftgean, to love; hecdu,

genitive bealpes, bealiipes, baleful. ComjJare § 27, 5.

(2.) Between two vowels a continuous sometimes changes to a

mute;d> d: prdd, pridon, I writhed, they writhed, ? § 35, 3, b.

EUPHONIC CHANGES.—COMPENSATION. 25

(3.) The former explosive sometimes changes to a contiuuous

of tlic same organ. § 35, 4, h, 2. hdyfd., ctyht, (jtyht, ttyst:

habba7i, hcefd€,\ia.ye,ha.d', soctey sohte, sought; dgaji, dhte^ own,

owned; motdeymotteyinoste, must; jntteypiste, wist.

(4.) One of two continuous may become explosive; hsyx —cs? (§ 28, h) : feax. Old H. German fcihs, hair

; Idyld: beald,

Gothic hcdps, bold ;let seldom occurs : fekt, falleth

; swld, house.

(5.) The former sonant becomes a surd in ddy{tdy)t (§ 35,

B) in the third singular of Acrbs (Conformation) : stenddy stoit,

standeth.

(6.) Successive syllables.—In Latin and English, -al and -ar in-

terchange to keep I or r from successive syllables : stellar, solar,

liberal, literal; so coerulean<,coelum. The former assibilation is

often smoothed in America: iwonunciation, § 34. The former

aspirate is not smoothed in Teutonic as it is in Greek.

87. Compensation.— (l.) A consonant is dropped and the

preceding vowel lengthened at the same time. 1. Before d,/, s,

with ecthlipsis of n, a change of a, e, i, u, y, to 6, e, i, H, i): tod.

Old H. German zand, Latin dent-h, tooth; soft, Old 11. German

scnfti, soft; (jos, Old H. German Jeans, goose ; oder, other

; sod,

sooth ; hosu, company ;so genedan, sptd, sid,fif, ilser, cUde, Ude,

mUd, hUsl, '^d. 2. With ecthlipsis of g, mostly before n: pa>gn^psen, wain

; pegnypen, thane; regnig'yremg, rainy ; pign'ypin,

food; fsegr yfier, fair

; ssogde > svcde, said; ligd> Ud, lieth

;see

iddeyeode, went. 3. With apocope of c, g, h, r: tneC^me, me;

pecypB, thee; higyheo {?), they; feohyfeo, fee; ge {<Cger),

ye; me (<j«er), to me; pe {<:^per),to thee; pe (<7;>er), Ave.

(2.) A consonant is doubled and a following vowel dropped at

the same time;

i is dropped with gemination of a preceding b, c,

d,f, g, I, rn, n, s : habian~^ habban, have; recian^reccan, to rule;

bidiaW^biddan, to \i\^; spefian'^ sp)ebban, to sleep; ligian^lic-

gan, to lie; teliaWytellan, to tell

; fremia^i'^fremman, to frame ;

clgnian.> chjnnan, to clang ; cnysian> cnyssan, to knock.

(3.) After a long root syllable neuter -?« drops, and i of stem

-ia weakens to e, or drops : secia?i> secean, s^can, to seek.

1. Speech naturally runs in pulses; a certain length of time and a certain

volume of sound is pleasantcst between the pauses or accentual beats. The

tendency of speech to preserve this rhythm by lengthening the remaining let-

ters when one is dropped, or shortening all letters when a new letter is added,

is called Compensation, and the name is extended to all adjustments of quanti-

ty and accent which restore the rhythm after the adding or dropping of letters.

•2. In the pronunciation of Latin according to the English method, an ac-

26 EUPHONIC CHANGES,—GRAVITATION.

cented vowel in any syllabic before tbe penult is shortened in sound, no mat-

ter what may have been its original quantity ;while such a vowel in the pe-

nult has the long sound. The same law prevails in the Homauic portion of

English: brief, briefer, brev'-ity ; admire, admi'-rcr, mir'-acle, mirac-

ulous. The whole body of words conform to what was the fact in the larger

number of Latin words. It shows that a long accented syllable followed bytwo unaccented is more than the natural length of the rhythm. This force

of compensation is not so plain in the Anglo-Saxon portion of English, and

we do not know enough of the pronunciation of Anglo-Saxon to trace its ef-

fects with accuracy. A word with an affix sometimes has a lighter vowel than

the kindred word without one: /c^?i, servant, /»;^nc«, maid-servant; bera,

bear, hiren, bearish;but the change may be (almost) always explained from

assimilation of some kind. Unaccented syllables show compensation. § 46.

3. When more voice than two short syllables follows an accented syllable,

the old accent often moves forward, or a second accent is given : admire,

admird'-tion; 7nir'-acle,mirac'-ulous ; Icg'-ible, leg'-ibil'-ity. This law

is to be seen most clearly in the Romanic portion of English.

4. Compensation acts in connection with Gravitation. ^ 38.

38. Gravitation is the tendency of sounds to accentual cen-

ters. It is seen in the lengthening of accented syllables, and the

lightening and final disappearance of unaccented syllables. It

goes on in all languages.

A. Vowels.—Rule I. Progression.—Under the accent the

simple vowels «, ?', u, lengthen by prefixing a and d.

Mixed vowels and breakings move to their latter element; diphthongs ed,

eb, and all whose former vowel is long, move to their former vowel : e {a-\~i),

>z; (a+M)>z<; y (M-}-i)>i; ea, ea^d, 6; eo, eo'^u, 6; diphth. ca>e,etc.

; eo<?, ea<iau, often go to e, ^^ 203, 204, 41, 33.

(fl.) Accentual effort opens to the a-shape the neck of the bottle shaped for i or ii, § 22;

too much a weakens to u or i; aaa^aati, 6, etc. ; eo<i, ea, are in unstable equilibrium.

Rule II. Precession.—In an unaccented syllable the progres-sion of simple vowels is reversed

;also a goes to o, ti, or i, then

to ey i goes to e ; ii to o and e/ & disappears.

(1.) In the Parent Speech were the following series:

a, a-\-a=d, d-\-a=da. i, ai, di. u, aic, du.

In An2;lo-Saxon the followintj series are found:

a-series :

EUPHONIC CHANGES.—GEAVITATIOX. 27

scdn'y shone ; \/sci?i^ scmmi, seem, sbiue, shone; \/ lug^ leogan,

ledg, lie, lied; }/ siic^ si1.can, sedc, suck, sucked; se«i> shine

(English t—d-\-i); mils^mouse (English ou— d-\-xi)\ ^et/>teeth

(ee=^) ;i?wf> tooth (oo =?:?) ; /iyr«n>hear (eaz=i) ; w?ys>mice

(^>C>d4-«); ieaM>buld; e«^>all; sceotow> shoot; hedm^beam; 5eo>bee.Descending: y/hif'^luf'ode, luf'dde, luf'ude, luf'ede, loved;

pidgcd^ptdgil, pidgel, Avide spread ; landsceap, landscipe, land-

scape; Apri'lis^ A'preUs, K^\A\ (Gothic ?n«m, Old H. German

mari) mere, mere (sea); (Sanskrit madhn) meodit'^meodo'^ Old

English mede'^mead. Here also belong many forms of verbs

now accented, but formerly unaccented : hhide, bunden<^ }/ hand,

bind, bound; for a fuller exjilanation of which, see Ablaut, 158;also nearly all the affixes of declension and conjugation, for which

see Etymology, as referred to in the Index.

(2.) The changes in the Anglo-Saxon series may be compared with Rules

I. and II. and changes in other languages given on page 8, ^ 18 : «>tP, o,

lautverschiebung as in Greek and Latin ; dyie, e, same ; da^dii (Rule I.)

><3 (Greek and Latin); ai>t, Rule I. (Latin); di>d, Rule I. (Greek);

aic'^H (Rule I., Latin) ; aiiy-hc (Rule I. Greek fv)~^e6 by a-umlaut in

stems of verbs and nouns, and by conformation elsewhere (^ 32, 40), San-

skrit has 6, Friesic ia ; du > a^ > a' > 'a metathesis to breaking to con-

form with e6 (Friesic d) . The descending series already shows itself in San-

skrit in changing a to u and i; i and u to e was not yet in Gothic. See

^ 23, e. In Latin and the Romanic part of English, a in open syllables

goes to i ; before r, to e ; in close syllables, to e ; before I, io u; e often

goes to i, but before r or in close syllables it remains; facio, efficio, efficient

;

pater, Jupiter; pario, aperio, aperient; damno, condemno, condemn; salto,

exsuUo,e\\i\i; lego,dUigo,*\'\\\gGni\ z?i/e?-o, infer; correctum, coxxeci. (Lat-

in accent originally on the prefix. ^41, 4.)

(3.) The changes from Anglo-Saxon to English take a new start, and are

wholly analogous to the original series of the Parent Speech.

(4.) The first lengthening of i and u by progression is called guna (mas-culine strength), a term of Sanskrit grammar; the second is called vriddhi

feminine increment).

(5.) The various kinds of assimilation and sound-shifting work together

with progression ;the result of the whole upon the vowel system of the An-

glo-Saxon is shown in the summary on page 7.

B. From Gravitation also springs («) the gemination of a con-

sonant ending an accented syllable : the common cases have been

mentioned under Compensation (§ 37) ; {h) also the dropping of

consonants in unaccented syllables, and some Aveakenings, § 41, b.

28 EUniONIC CHANGES.—MIMETIC CHANGES.—SHIFTING.

39. Ablaut.—See Etymology.40. Mimetic Changes arc those occurring through the in-

fluence of other words, g 158.

1. Conformation.—The words of all languages show a disposition to con-

form in inflection to the majority. The Anglo-Saxon nouns have gone over

to a single declension in English ; and the strong verbs, one after another,

go over to the inflection of the weak.

2. Simidation.—The feigning a connection with words of similar sound is

an important fact in English and other modern languages : asparagus~> spar-

row grass. It probably had just as full play in ancient speech, but its effects

can not be so surely traced. See carc-crn, ^ 229; frx, ^ 254.

3. Bifurcation is the separation of a word into two : borne, born ; truth,

troth; ivake, ivatch ; flour, jlowcr ; balsam, balm. There are hundreds of

words in English produced by this kind of fissiparous generation. Where it

is produced by a foreign word coming into English in different ways, it has

been called Dimorphism : ration, reason.

4. The law of contrast also operates to sunder different words of similar

sound, especially if one of the words have odious associations: grocer <.

grosser; cucumber< cowcumber ; boiKbile.

41. Shifting {Lautverschiehimg) is a change of sound not due

to other sounds in the language. Changes in climate or modes

of life, mixing nations of different stocks, ease of utterance, and

more obscure causes, affect the adjustment of the vocal organs to

the mind, and so shift the speech of nations. The current corre-

sponding sounds in several of the Indo-European languages are

given on page 8.

(1.) Vowels.—Tiiere was a gradual weakening of the vowels in

the ancient languages. The Sanskrit a shifts to a, t, o, in Greek,

and to «, 6, «*, 0, ii.,in Latin

;ic shifts to o / i to e. Ease of ut-

terance and consonant assimilation work together for close vowels.

This movement is modified by assimilation, compensation, and gravitation,

but in long periods the shifting is plain ; a weakened vowel can seldom be

found in Sanskrit where the full form is in Greek or Latin. The short vow-

els are not found to shift in comparing one Teutonic tongue with another.

The movement of the long vowels is found on page 8. Within the Anglo-Saxon we have referred to this shifting in speaking of «>«?,«>(?,«!> '<£,

tc > g, ed> e, CO > ^, ea>e, eo>e.

(2.) Consonants to Vowels.—In the table, ^*> 2, v>w, are noted in

Anglo-Saxon; they occur also in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, etc. ; ^]>ti and

/> ^ are common in the Romanic languages : Latin collum'^ French col^cou, neck ; Latin planus > Italian piano, plane. Compare § 35, 2, b. Themovement is sometimes reversed, as when a nation moves northward, or

northern peoples mix with a vowel-speaking race : Anglo-Saxon (/<Ci- ^ 34.

EUPHONIC CHANGES—SHIFTING. 29

(3.) Consonants to Consonants.—Regular shifting is to weak-

er consonants : gutturals to palatals, labials, dentals ; smooth to

middle; rough to middle. Surd to sonant, mute to continuous,

§ 35, 3, h.

A. Shifting to a co-ordinate consonant.—(a.) One smooth mute

to another : \vKoq., Latin liqyus, wolf, (i.) One middle to another :

ykvKVQ (metathesis), Latin dulcis, sweet, (c.) Rough to rough.

{d.) Spirant to spirant : geseah, gesepen, saw, seen (§ 35, 3, J) ; j/jut,

Latin semi, (e.) Liquid to liquid : Latin asimcs, Gothic asilus,

Anglo-Saxon esol, ass;German kind, Anglo-Saxon did, child

;

Latin pnmum, Anglo-Saxon jiluina, plum. These shiftings are

occasional, or dialectic.

B. Shifting to another consonant of the same class :

(«.) Grimm's Law, lautverschiebung by eminence (see § 19).

With the progress of the Teutonic tribes northwestward they

came to use for each smooth mute the corresponding rough, for a

rough the corresponding middle, for a middle the correspondingsmooth. This first shift is believed to have been completed dur-

ing the third century ;and here the Gothic, the Anglo-Saxon and

other Low Germanic, and the Scandinavian languages rested.

The High German went on, and shifted in the same way a sec-

ond time;so that since the seventh century it stands in the same

relation to the other Teutonic languages that they do to the rest

of the Indo-European family.

Guttukals : k (c) >ch (h) >g ? (h) : Lat. caput, A.-Sax. heaf

od, head, O. II. Ger. houpit ; ch (h) > g> k : Lat. homo, A.-Sax.

guma, man, O. II. Ger. komo ; g> k (c) > ch (h) : Lat. ego, A.-

Sax. ic, I, O. H. Ger. ih.— Dentals : t >th, dh>d : Lat. tres,

A.-Sax. prt, three, O. H. Ger. drt ; d> t> th ? (z) : Lat. dentis,

A.-Sax. tod, tooth, O. H. Ger. zand ; th (Lat. f ) >d>t : 0»/p, Lat.

fera, A.-Sax. deor, deer> O. H. Ger. tior.— Labials : p> f>b ?

(f): \^viX. pedis, A.-Sax. fof, foot, O. K. Ger. fuoz; b>p>f:Lat. cannabis, A.-Sax. henep, hemp, O.H. Ger. hanaf; f>b>p :

Lat.frater, A.-Sax, broder, brother, O. H. Ger. p^^uodar.

(a.) The change of rmigh, mutes to middle is a regular weakening in Bactrian, Slavonic,

Lithuanic, Celtic, and not infrequent in Greek and Latin. That of smooth to roiujih (the

use of parasitic h) is occasional in Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, and abundant in Old

Irish. That oi middle to svvmth is a strengthening peculiar to the Teutonic, and an enig-

ma. Americans seem to hear foreigners use it freely in talking English. Germans and

Celts use more surd breath and less sonant than wc. Their r/, h, d are heard as k, p, t,

their k, p, t as aspirates."K(h)ill the poys," says Fluellen (Hen. V., iv., 7). This suggests

the hypothesis that Celts adopted the speech of invading Teutons, that their Celtic pronun-

ciation of it as heard by the Teutons became current, and that climatic influences and al-

30 riGUKATIOX.—AriliERESIS.

literation made the chaugo thorough. The Teutonic instinct for preserving distinctions

helped, ssince, when the rough weakened to middle, they would incline to change the old

middles to preserve the correlation. There are many exceptions to Grimm's Law: 1. Aletter is often lixed by combination with another: d in 7u1, Id; t in at, ht,ft. 2. Rough kh,

ph, often early changed to continuous h, /, and rested, § 27, 2. The whole shifting of the

High German gutturals and labials is thus disturbed. The corresponding letters, as oftcnest

found, may be seen in 5 19.

{b.) Other cases of shifting may be i > g, h > g", strengthen-

ings in Anglo-Saxon and elsewhere; g > h, d > s, S > r, d > 1,

b>f>v, common Aveakenings. Most of the cases in Anglo-Saxon have been referred to in §§ 35, 36.

(4.) Accent.—There are three systems of accentuation : 1st,

the grammatical, in Avhich the accent is given to that syllabic

which last modifies the general notion, i. e., to the affixes and pre-

fixes of inflection; 2d, the rhythmical, in which the accented syl-

lable is determined by the number and quantity of the syllables

in the word; 3d, the logical, in which the accented syllable is the

first of those expressing the main notion, i, e., the root syllable or

a prefix of composition defining it. The earliest Indo-European

languages are least straitened by any one system ;but the first is

in its greatest vigor ;the Sanskrit acute may be given to any

part of a word. The Greek and Latin came under the rhythmical

influence, and in the classical time used the acute only on one of

the three last syllables. The Teutonic languages became alto-

gether logical, § 15. This shifting of accent is a fundamental fact

in the explanation of Ablaut and many other phonetic facts in

Anglo-Saxon and all other Indo-European languages.

FIGURATION.42. The dropping of sounds is mostly connected with gravita-

tion (§ 38). Adding of sounds without change of sense is rare;

but the shifting of accent (§ 41, 4), or the handing over a word

to a race with different habits of speech, or even the bringing to-

gether by syncope or ecthlipsis of difficult combinations of let-

ters occasionally calls for euiDhonic additions. Prosthesis is most-

ly gemination (§ 27, 4), -or parasitic (§ 33), or conformation with

similar words in which the added letter is significant. Metathesis

is mostly euphonic and dialectic.

43. Aphaeresis is found of unaccented e, ge ; of c in en; of

h in Jd, hn, hr, and elsewhere; of 7;*m pi, pr, pu : hisceop < Lat.

episcojms, bishop ; pistol < Lat. ejnstola, epistle ; gelic > like;

geclddod > yclad > clad;

cneO > knee; hl(1f> loaf; hnappung

APOCOPE.—SYNCOPE.—rEOTHESIS.—EPENTHESIS. gl

> napping ; hrwfn > raven (§ 31) ; yyini < Lat. hymnus, hymn ;

plisj) > lisp ; protan, root.

44. Apocope is found of all syllables of inflection. The vow-

els go to e and drop ;c and r in the pronouns, and ^, A, m, n, s,

may droj"). See Declension and Conjugation.45. Elision is found of the stem vowel e, i, and of final e Avhen

two words arc drawn together: scceany secan, seek; pergkmype?*(7rtn, damn ; clyniany dynncm, clang; hiitan <ihe-\-'dtan^'\:)\xi',

nun <,ne+ cin^ x\oi\q; nahban < ne -\- hahhan, uol have; nies<.

ne -\-pces, was not.

4G. Syncope is found of an unaccented stem vowel before

/, n, r ; less often before f?, </, st ; sometimes before e, y, ???, p,and other consonants

;oftenest when the consonant is followed

by a syllable of inflection : engel^ englds, angel, angels ; Jieofon^

heofnes, heaven, heaven's; pmter, pintres^ winter, winter's

;

dctn{e)de, deemed; hicf{e)st, licef{e)cU hast, hath; miinec^ mitnc,

monk; hdllg, hulges, holy ; mdd{u)m, gem ; pid{e)pe^ widow

;

cpiOciic, quick (?). Syncope often brings on ecthlipsis.

47. Ecthlipsis is found of d, d, s, st, before st ; of n before

d,f, s; of d, g, A, ?",p, mostly between vowels or before a liquid:

/i^e(f?)5^, loadest; cpi{d) st, qwothest; e?/(5)s^, choosest; bi7'{st)st,

burstest;

for n, //, § 37; fedper (Gothic fidvor), four

; pegn >pen, thane

; freogan'yfreon, to love; te6han'> tedn, tug; ner{i)-

est, savest; niUcm~;>ne-\-pillcm, to be itnwilliug. Mostly assim-

ilation and gemination.48. Prothesis is found of h, i consonant (y), and p by blun-

der (§ 31). Apparent prothesis of h, g, ge, n, s, is found in An-

glo-Saxon or English, but probably springs from conformation

with the many words beginning with be-, by, ge-, together, an,

an, its, out : meltan, smeltan, melt, smelt; nadder, adder

; Ned,Edward

; Nanny, Anna. So in the French : espace < Lat. spa-

tium, space; conforming with words beginning with Latin ex-:

eclore, exclure < Lat. exclaudo, excludo, exclude. Real prothesisis pretty common in Greek: 6(ppvc (Sanskrit bhri(), brow; uTrtip,

star,

49. Epithesis is found of e; of b after m; of d, t, after oi, I,

r ; of t after s, and n after a vowel. Those of e and n are con-

formations of declension and inflection, whidi see: lam{b), lamb;

tyran(t); len(d); moul(d); aftbr(d); niids(t) ; betpnx{t) ,\>QU\\xt ;

-s{t) second singular of verbs. See § 27, 5.

50. Epenthesis is found of a vowel between two consonants,

e.g., e before ry c, o, v, before ;;v, ??, /> ,•of g, n, p, between

OJj9 METATHESIS.—CONTRACTION.

vowels;of d after «, I (especially followed by I or r) ;

of t after

s ; of n before </, s, d ; of/ between a consonaut and following ej

of r before s, M,^), and after t, d, g ; of /> between m and ?, r, or

a short vowel; of2> between m and ?i, s, or t: meter <^'L^i. mc-

trum, meter;bosom < Jos»^, bosom ; gllsnian > glisten ; beal{o)-

pcs, bale's;meoliic < meolc, milk (Latin midgeo^ Greek ajutXyw,

Sanskrit J?;?-.7') ; li/fi{g)cm, love; gife{n)d, gifts' ;

i?^«w > bugan,

biipan, inhabit (§§ 221, 224, e) ; punor y Jmnder, thunder; bal{d)-

sam^ balsam; glisnia^i > glisten ; niJdegale, nightingale ; e(n)-

sample; Sarmende K'Lz.t. Sarmatw ; myrt(l)e ;ct?cfe > could

;

has, hoarse; spadii^ swarth ; co(r)poral < French capordl Kcajy,

chief; cart(r)idge; part(r)idge; chal(d)ron; ir^c7/7«ma > bride-

groom ;timber (Gothic tiinrjan), t'lmhev ]

^zemo/ > nimble;

sco-

llmbos<Liiit. scolgmos, a thistle; nemney- nem2)ne (Chaucer),

name; glim(p)se; e»ie^/^ > empty. § 27, 5, 33.

51. Metathesis is found of Iipywh, spy^ys, gnyng, ??«>

5W, 5C>cK, sgyx; of a vowel with a following I or r when a

mute precedes ;of a vowel with a preceding I or r when a mute

precedes : /ip% white (graphic only) ; pvesjw, psejyse, Avasp ; peg7i,

peng, thane; clmisian, chesnicm, cleanse

; Jisc yfix, fish; dscian,

dxian, ask; axe (Gothic azgo), ashes; beorJit, JryA^, bright ; tdel,

idle (graphic) ; grves^ gxrs, grass ; osle, cusel (rare) ;so iriian,

rinnan, run.

CONTRACTION.52. In the Teutonic languages the hiatus is not generally avoid-

ed by contraction, but by elision or epenthesis ;or it stands.

(1.) Synreresis is found in Anglo-Saxon after ecthlipsis of g or

h, and the assimilation ofp to w.

When unlike vowels meet, a mixed sound is produced in which

the open vowel predominates : a, o, 6, with another vowel be-

come 6/ II, e, lengthen the preceding vowel;

i drops; a-{-a=d;

ii-\-a=^o ^' t-{-a=:ed {I breaks): fdhany-fon, take; gefeohany-

gefeon, rejoice ; gefeohe > gefeo ; teolian > teon, tug ; freogan >freon, love; cpdmony cudmony comon, come; fvegeryfm',fair

; sdply said, soul; epic > cuic > cue, quick ;

sleahan > sledn,

slay ; cpam > com > com, come; pihan ypedn, grow.

(2.) The reduplicati'on contracts with the root of verbs; w-\-d,

&-\-ed, di+o, give eo, which shifts to S; vb-\-a, m-[-ea, x-]-sb, con-

form. See Inflection, § 159.

(3.) For traces of synizesis, synaloopha, and other contractions

in Anglo-Saxon poetry, see §§ 509, 510.

PART II.

ETYMOLOGY.

I. DEFINITIONS.

53. Etymology treats of the structure and history of words.

It inchides classitication, inflection, and derivation.

54. A Word is an elementary integer of speech. It has a

mixed nature : it is thought on one side, and sound on the other.

55. Notional and Relational.—An analysis of the words

of the Indo-European languages gives two kinds of significantsounds: (1) those co7inoting qualities: e. g., of acts, as eat, sit,

go, Jcnow, love; of substances, as icet, red, quick; (2) those con-

noting relations: e.g., of space, time, subject, object; as here,

there, then, me, he. The first are called notional; the second,

relational.

56. Radicles are elementary relational parts of words. Theyare generally single sounds— oftenest a consonant sound. Thelabials connote subjective relations oftenest; the dentals, object-

ive and demonstrative;the gutturals, interrogative ;

the nasals

often connote negation ;the vowels, oftenest simple limitation.

Radicles are found (1) as the essential part of words which de-

note relation (prepositions and adverbs) : tz-p, up ; ^a-l, by ; o-f,

of; xa-id, with; a3-t, at; t-o, to; l>tCr, there; 2>a3?me, then ;

sp-<^, so; hp-icr, where

; hp-a3wne, when; (2) of words which de-

note persons or things directly as having the relation connoted

by the radicle (substantive pronouns) : m-^, me ; \)-ii.,thou

; \\-c,

he; B-eo, she

; (3) of Avords Avhich define, as having certain re-

lations, objects denoted by other words (adjective pronouns) :

VHrin, mine; J)-?«, thine; \fixit, that; sp-27c, such; hp-a??, what;

(4) united to roots to form stems, see § 58; (5) united to stems

of nouns or pronouns as factors of relation (case-endings or ad-

verbial affixes) : smides, smith's; leafas, leaves; JdxQ., him ; pwr,

there; payinan, thence

;sec § GO

; (6) united to stems of verbs

as factors of relation (inflection endings): com, am; li/Jiast,

lovest; lifflad, loveth.

57. A Root is an elementary notional svllablo. A few arc

C

34 CLASSiriCATlON.—DlXLEXyiON UF NOUNS.

formed by onomatojic from noises; hrlng, ring ; has, hoarse

;a

few from sounds naturally exjiressive of feeling: hleah-tor, laugh-ter

; jyop, whoop ;or vocal gesture : st, whist

;s?a-nd

; some are

a growth from the radicles, and descriptive primarily of being or

motion in the direction or mode connoted by the radicle : 2nnian,

to go in; ilti^u, to put out; ?/;>pan, to ojoe?i (=:raise v})) ; /aran,

to larc {=go fort/i) ;most roots are the expression of an adjust-

ment of the mind and vocal organs to each other, according to

which the mind in a certain state tends to put the vocal organs in

a given state.

The diffusion of the roots and radicles through all the Indo-European lan-

guages, and their perpetuation from the earliest ages through such complete

changes of the superficial appearance of these languages, shows that there

must be some stable adjustment of mind to organs in this family of nations.

A comparison with other races shows that it is an extension and modification

of a less definite adjustment belonging to the original constitution of man.

58. A Stem is that part of a noun to which the historical case-

endings, or of a verb to which the personal endings and tense

signs were affixed. Sometimes it is a root, but generally it is

formed from the root by one or more relational suffixes : -^/man,

think>stem mem, man; -y/sM, bear> stem su-nu, son; -\//wy*, stem

hifia > Ivfian, to love, lufigende, lover. For case-endings, see

§ 60.

II. CLASSIFICATION.

59. The parts of speech are the Noun (Adjective), Pronoun

(Article, Numeral), Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and

Interjection.

III. NOUNS.DECLENSIOX.

GO. A noun has different forms (cases) in different relations in

the sentence. The variable final letters of a noun are its case-

endings ;the rest is its theme.

61. The case-endings in Anglo-Saxon mark the relations of

(1.) Six cases : nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vo-

cative, instrumeyital.

(2.) Three numbers: singular (one object), lylural (morethan one), dual (two).

CASE-ENDINGS. 35

(3.) Three genders : masculine, feminine, netiter.

62. In the Parent Speech there is only one set of case-endings,

as follows :

SiMGULAE. Plural. Dual. Englibu Equivalent.

Nominative.... s )—Nominative (no

[ sas \ sign).Vocative (Stem)) (

« —Nominative In-

[ dependent.Accusative am ams

J—

Objective (nosign).

Genitive as saxus )

—Possessive 's, or

„„„ of with the oh-aus

jective.Locative i svas j

—in with the ob-

jective.Dative ai )

—to or for with

|'bhjams^the objective.

Ablative at ) ( . .—from or out of

> thjams Avith objective.Instrumental (1) a )

\.\.i„ )) byor withwitli

Instrumental (2) bhi f S objective.

63. The endings are formed from the radicles (^ 56), and are plainly con-

nected with pronouns and prepositions in Sanskrit and other languages.

(a.) The nominative s is connected with the demonstrative and article :,

Sanskrit sa, sa, tat ; Greek 6, »), to ; Anglo-Saxon se, seo, p&t. It is us^d

only with masculine and feminine nouns, and is a quasi article, as if, in An-

glo-Saxon, se cyning (the king) were written cyning-se^ njnings. (Forthe use of the article to mark a subject, see Greek Grammars : Crosby, ^ 487,

4; Hadley, ^ 535.) A neuter t (tat) is early found.

(6.) The accusative 7n appears in the Sanskrit mdm, ma, me; ama, this,

etc. ; a vivid conception of any suffering object is expressed by the same

sound which is used for one's self as suffering object.

(c.) The genitive s is connected with the demonstrative sa, Anglo-Saxon

se, and marks personality like the s of the nominative. The prepositions

and adverbs of this radicle oftenest mean tcith, together: Sanskrit safia,

sam, sa, etc., corresponding in use with Greek avv, Latin con, Anglo-Saxon

ge. So the genitive s marks a personal adjunct, then any adjunct. The

original form was perhaps .yam, which shows in the plural.

(d.) The locative i appears as in in the pronoun (Sanskrit tasm-in, in

that), and is connected with the preposition in; tiie plural svas is formed

on another pronoun : Sanskrit sva, Latin se, Greek f ,self

(e.) The dative ai is connected with abhi, by, as appears from the pro-

noun, Sanskrit tu-hhjam, Latin ti-hi, to thee, and from the plural bhjams.

(f.) The ablative t is connected with the demonstrative ta, the, and its

force in prepositions and adverbs may be seen in Sanskrit, Gothic, Anglo-

36 PHONETIC DECAY.

Saxon ut, out of; the Uinbrian tu, to, out of; Latin -tus {cwlilus, from

heaven). Variations of the dental radicle are also found in Latin -de, undc,

whence ; indc, tlience;Greek -6n', from, etc.

(g.) The instrumental tt is from the demonstrative radicle a, and bhi from

the labial radicle: Sanskrit l)hi ; Greek -^i ; Anglo-Saxon bi, hy (^ 63, c).

(/j.) The plural sign is s, and is to be connected in sense with the prepo-

sition sam, together icith, mentioned in connection with the genitive. This

is strengthened by insertion of the pronominal am in the genitive sdms, and

the dative and ablative b/rjdms. The dual is a lengthening of the plural.

(i.) The genitive singular and nominative plural are head-cases.

04. Phonetic Decay.—Sounds whose meaning is not vividly felt

come under the influence of gravitation (^ 38) : they weaken, blend, and at

last slough away. When tribes speaking different dialects mix, the casc-

cndings are half caught, and decay is quickened. By this process the Lido-

European languages have been losing their inflections. As it goes on, di-

versity of declension arises, two causes of which may be mentioned :

(1.) Different Endings of the Stem.—Some stems end in a vowel, others

in a consonant. Under the operation of euphonic laws each stem has its

own effect on the endings. The Comparative Grammars discuss the effect

of many different stems (Schleicher gives fifteen sets of paradigms). In the

Teutonic languages the vowel stems have held the original case-endings

most firmly, and are called strong ;the stems in n are called "weak ; other

consonant stems conform (J^ 40), or are irregular.

(2.) Gender.—(a.) Names applied io females use long vowels and liquids;

they melt away the strong consonant endings, and attain vowel or liquid end-

ings. Again, all words having such endings tend to assume the habits of fem-

inine names throughout, and become grammatically of the feminine gender.

(5.) The separation of neuter from masculine is not so thorough-going.No special form is needed to distinguish inanimate things as acting, or as ad-

dressed;hence the nominative and vocative are not distinguished from the

accusative. We take inanimate things in the lump; hence neuters tend to

use no plural sign, or to use an ending like the feminine singular, as an ab-

stract or collective form : Greek, Latin, -ci; Anglo-Saxon, -n, etc. Latin

neuters plural frequently become feminine singular in the Romance lan-

guages ;Greek neuters plural take a singular verb. The neuter is a mascu-

line with the activity out; the Sanskrit grammarians call it kliva, eunuch.

(c.) Gender has two aspects : (1) it represents a tendency to use different

sounds for relations to males from those used for similar relations to females,

or to inanimate things ; (2) it represents the tendency to couple together

words (nouns, adjectives, and pronouns) agreeing in their terminations.

From the first point of view there can be but three genders ; many lan-

guages have but two ;some have none. From the second point of view

there may be as many genders as there are sets of terminations;some lan-

guages have none; some, e.g., the Congoes and Caffirs, have many.

(</.) There was originally no sound as a sign of gender in the Indo-Euro-

pean Parent Speech. It is denoted, however, in the earliest remains by long

DECLENSIONS.—RULES FOR GENDER. 37

vowels, especially il,Jd'^i, for feminine nouns; by -t in the nominative for

some neuters, and indirectly by other case-endings. It has been a constant

force, showing itselfmore and more through all the changes of the language,and in the Anglo-Saxon affords a natural subdivision of the case-endinjis.

Co. There are two classes of Declensions of Anglo-Saxon nouns:

(L) Strong: those which have sprung from vowel stems.

(2.) Weak : that which has sprung from stems in an.There are four declensions distinguished by the endings of the

Genitive Singular :

38 DECLENSION FIRST.—A-STEMS.

6. Neuter arc names of wife, child ; diminutives ; many general names ;

and words made an object of thought : p'lf, wife ; hearn, cild, child ; mwgden,maiden; ^r.Tj, grass; q/e<, fruit; corn, corn; ^oW, gold.

7. Epicene Nouns have one grammatical gender, but are used for both

sexes. Such names of mammalia are masculine, except of a few little timid

ones : mus, mouse (feminine) ; large and fierce birds are masculine ; others

feminine, especially singing birds : nihtegale, nightingale ; large fishes are

masculine, small feminine ; insects are feminine.

G8. Cases alike.— (l.) The nominative and vocative are al-

ways alike.

(2.) The nominative, accusative, and vocative are alike in all

plurals, and in the singular of all neuters and sti'ong masculines.

{2>.) The genitive plural ends always in a or ena.

(4). The dative and instrumental plural end always in um{on). The instramentals are etymologically datives, except -^, -^,

DECLENSION I.

Stem in a. Genitive singular in es.

CO. Here belong Masculines,—monosyllables, derivatives in

I, m, ?^, r,p^ic'^Oy els, rd, d, d, t, nd, sty oc, h, ng, e, ere ; Neu-ters,

—monosyllables, often with be- or (/e- prefixed, derivatives

in I, n, r,2?ytcyo, d, t, h, e, incle.

70.—I. Case-endings from stem a -{-relational suffixes. Nom-inative in —.

Masculine. Neuter.

Stem. pulfa, icolf. scipa, ship.

Theme pulf, scip.

Singular.—Nominative . . pulf, a loolf. scip.

Genitive pulfes, of a xcolf, icolfs. scipes.

Dative pulfe, to or for a icolf scipe.

Accusative .... pulf, a wolf. scip.

Vocative pulf, 0, toolf. scip.

Instrumental. . pulf^, bj/ or with a wolf. scipe."

Plural.—Nominative . . pulfds, loolves. scipw.

Genitive pulfc?, oficolves. scipa.

Dative pulft«», to or for wolves. scip^^m.

Accusative . . . pulfas, zuolves. scipt^

Vocative pulf(?5, 0, wolves. sci^u.

Instrumental. . pulf«;«, by or loitJi, icolves. scipwm.

COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY. 39

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Old Saxon. Old Norse.

(J ( a9va, iTTTTO, equo, vulfa, wulfa, ulfa,

\ho}'se. horse. horse, wolf. wolf. wolf.

SiNGCLAR.—Nominative., a^va-s Vn-To-f equu-s vulf-s wulf ulf-r

(tTTTro-to ) ^ „ ( wulba-s )

Genitive a9va-sja j ..TTTrov f^1"' ^"^^"^

1 wulbe-s f"^^"^

Dative dijva-j-a (Vtti^ equo vulfa wulba, e ulfi

Accusative... a9va-m 'iinro-v equu-m vulf wulf ulf

Vocative a9va 'iTrire eque vulf (^Xomin.) (Nomin.')

Instrumental a9va. 'nrTru-tpi. {Ablat.) {Dative.) -svulbu (^Dative.)

Plural.—Nominative.. a9va-sas (tttto-i equ (e-i-s), i vulfo-s \vulb6-s, u-s ulfa-r

( equu-m ) ,„» n « » »i^Genitive a9va-n-ara 'Itttj-wv

j \_ i"^'ulf'-' "wulbo, a ulfa

(.equo-rum (ulfu-mDative... a9ve-bhja3 (Locat.) equi-s vulfa-m -wulbo-n, u-n 1 „ „,

Accusative... a9va-n(s) 'iniro-vQ equos vulfa-ns wulf6-s, a-s ulfa

The Old High German has loulf, wulfcs, iculfa, wulf,tviilfu ; ividfd,wulfo,

wulfwn, wulfd. The Old Friesic has fisk,fisk-is {-es),Jis/c-a (-?', -e),

Jisk; fisk-ar {-a), fiska, fisk-um {-on, -em),jisk-ar {-a).

For Parent speech, add the endings in ^ 62 to the stem.

VI. Changes in Endings, ^^ 38, G4. (a.) The stem-vowel -a in Gothic

and Antrlo-Saxon does not blend with the terminations as in Latin and Greek,O

but drops. This declension is thus become analogous to the Latin and Greek

consonant declension (Third) ; compare the singular genitive and plural

nominative, and see iroiinv, homcn, § 95, a, and proper names, ^ lOl, h.

{b.) Case-endings. For original forms, see ^ 62.

Singular.—Nominative -s is weathered, ^^ 62, 64. Genitive -as'^-es,

precession, ^ 38. Dative -aj>-a>-e, precession, 1^38 ; sometimes -e>— ;

ham, home ; dceg, day. Accusative -flm> — , §^ 62, 64. Instrumental

-a^e, § 18, or a-hhi^ Lithuanic, Slavonic -a-mi'^ 0. H. G. -11, Goth, e

(in hvc, sve,l>e, hvadre, etc.)> A. S. -e, §^ 62, 63, 251, IL, b.

Plural.—Nominative a-s{a)s^ -as has farther precession to -a5> -es> -s

in late A. -Saxon and English. Genitive -(5)am(5)> -a, ^ 64. Dative

.bhja(m)sy -rajas'^ -mus'^ -mr\> -m; bJi^m nasalizing the labial as in

Lith. and S\diW.-mus,-mu; -am> -w??z, labial assimilation,^ 35, 2, a; pre-

cession to -on, -en is found. Accusative -ans'^ -as, compensation, ^ 37.

(c.) This declension has best preserved the original case-endings, and has

transmitted to English the possessive and plural signs.

72. Neuters differ from masculines in this declension in having no proper

plural sign, ^ 64. Their plural ending is -a in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and

Gothic °-u in O. Sax.,0. Fries., and A. -Sax. ;— in O. H. Ger. and O. Nor.

(a.) The earlier -a is sometimes found in A.-Sax. (North.) ;-0 is com-

mon;sometimes the -u drops, precession, § 38 ; fidcra (w), wings ;

brimo («),

waters : gebcdu, gcbcd, prayers. For -ra, -ru, in wgra, eggs, see § 82.

40 STRONG NOUNS.—DECLENSION I.

73.

2. Long monosyllables.

Stem .... j'orda, n.

word.

Theme . . . pordSingular.—

N.,A.,<!^V. pordGen pordcsDat pordeInst pordePlural.—

N.,A.,6fV. pordGen porddi.

D. ^ Inst... pordum

STRONG NOUNS.—DECLENSION I

3. Shifting.

daga, m. fata, n

day. vat.

diri

da-g

dwges

dwge

dagks

dagk

dagum

fwt

fxt

fxtes

da'ge fxle

fivte

fatn

fatk

fatnm

4. U-umlant.

hiida, n.

slope.

/did

hlid

hlides

hlide

hlide

hleoda (-1-)

hleodk {-i-)

hleodam (-i-)

5. Gemination.

terra, m. spella, n.

tower. speech.

tor spel

tor

torres

torre

torre

spel

spelles

spelle

spclle

tor7-As spel

torrk spellk

torrmxi spellum

Stem. . . .

G. Syncope.

tungola, m.

star.

tungola, n.

star

Theme. . . tungol tungolSingular.—

N.,A.,dfV. tung-ol,-ul,-el,-lGen tung-oles, -ules, -eles, -les

Dat tung-ole, -ule, -ele, -le

Inst tung-ole, -ule, -ele, -le

Plural.—\ A d-V i^' ^""5'"^^^^' -w^as, -elks, -Iks^ *' ' ^

'\n.tung-ol\i,-ol, -ul,-el,-l

Gen tung-olk, -ulk, -elk, -Ik

D.<5j-

1. tung-olam, -ulam, -clum, -lum

7. Stem in

-ga.

bedga, m.

ring.

beag

hedig), h

hedges

hedge

hedge

bcdgks

hedgk

hedgum

8. Stem in -ha.

mearha, m. hoJia, m.

horse. hough.mearh Iwh

mear{h),g,- hoh, ho

meares hos

meare ho

meare ho

mearas

meark

mearxim

hos

hok

hoam

i). Stem in -pa.Stem .... hearpa, m., grove.

Theme. • . hearu

Singular.—N.,A., df-

V. hear-u, -o

Gen bear-pes,-upes,-opes,-epesDat hear-pe, -upe, -ope, -epeInst hear-pe, -upe, -ope, -epePlural.—

N.,A., <Sf V. bear-pks,-upks,-opks,-epksGen bear-pk, -upk, -opk, -epkD.

<5fI. .... bear-pnm, -vpnm, -op\im,

-ep\xm.

cneopa, n.,knee.

cneop

cneop, cneo

cneo-pes, -s

cneo-pe,—

cneo-pe,—

cneo-pu, -p,-

cneo-pk, cned

10. Stem+er.

<Tga, egg.

mg, plur. seger

wge

leg-er-u, -ru

xg-er-k, -rk

cneo-pwm, -um, -m seg-ex-Mia, -rum

STRONG NOUNS.—DECLENSION I. 41

V4. (1. Common forms.) Like />M//decline strong masculines not here-

after otherwise described : dd, oath; d&l, part ; stdn, stone ; cyning, king ;

recels, frankincense ; hldford, lord; S7idp, snow, etc. Like scip decline

strong neuters not hereafter otherwise described : col, coal; dor, door

; gcat,

gate ; gebod, bebod, bidding ; gebed, prayer ; gebrec, crash ; gemet, measure;

gefeoht, fight, etc.

(a.) Derivatives in -ad, -ed, -els sometimes drop plural -as: monad, months; hxled,

heroes ; fxtels, bags ; so those in -r and -nd, §§ 87, 100.

(6.) For datives in -d, genitives in ^ena, see §5 93, 94, 83, c.

(c.) Stem -e- is sometimes inserted conforming with stems in -ia: fisceas<ifiscds,

fishes, § 85.

(rf.) Themes in -sc may suffer metathesis, especially in the plural : Jisc, fiscds^fixds,

fishes ; tmc, tvuxds, tusks, § 51.

75. (2. Long monosyllables, neuter, § 37, 3.) Like pord decline neu-

ter monosyllables long by nature or position : ban, bone; beam, infant ; fyr,

fire; god, good; ^or5, horse; leaf, leaf; lead, song; speord, sword; pif,

wife, etc.

V6. (3. Shifting, ^ 23, 41.) Like d.rg or fxt decline monosyllables

with root x<^a:—masculine crxft, craft; gxst, guest; hpxl, whale; mxg,son

; fvzd, path ; stxf, staff;—neuter bxc, back ; bxd, bath ; fxc, space ;

frxd, fringe ; blxd, blade ; crxt, cart.

(«.) The shifting of fi to « is stopped in the plural by the assimilating force of the

a or M of the ending, § 35, 1.

77. (4. U-umlaut, ^ 32, 3). Like hint decline brim, water; gehlid,inclosure ; /i'm,limb, etc. This umlaut is only occasional.

78. (5. Gemination, ^ 27, 5.) Stems having gemination simplify it

according to Rule 13, § 20 ; bil, billes, ax, etc.

79. (6. Syncope, ^ 46, 37.) Syncopated may be words ending in an

unaccented short vowel before a single consonant :—masculine ensel, anfrel ;

caldor, elder; dryhten, lord; monad, month; heorot, stag, etc.;— neuter

setel, throne; yfel, evil ; beacen, sign ; tdcen, token

; leder, leather; pundor,

wonder, etc. ;—masc. and neut. heafod,, head

; segen, sign, etc.

80. (7-8. Stems in -ga and -ha.) For g'^h and h'^g, see ^^ \\,Z,b,118. For ecthlipsis of h, see § 47. For contraction hods^hos, see § 52.

Like mearh decline feorh, plur. neut. /eo?-A, beings, etc. Like hoh decline

fcoh, n. fee, pi. n. fco ; hreuh, pleoh, etc.; and with a similar contraction,

stems in a long vowel : ed, eds, river ; 5;£', sxs, sea, etc. See § 100.

81. (9. Stems in-pa.)

Like bearu decline ealu, n., ale; mealu, n., meal ;

etc. Like cneop decline treop, n., tree; peop, m., servant, etc.

(a). After a consonant p final shifts to m>o,- and before a vowel may have quasi-

gemination in vp; this m may then have precession to o>c. Similar are Sanskrit

«imave8<jsunu, son; O. II. Ger. palawe8<^palu, bale.

82. (10.) Stems strengthened by -er, ^ 228.) Like xg decline cealf,

calf; ctld, child; lamb, lamb.

{a.) A similar interchange of stem -a with -era is found in O. H. Ger. -ira, kelb, kclb-

ir, calf, O. Fris. kind-er-a, children, horn-ar, horns. The -cr sometimes comes into the

singular : lamher, a lamb.

42 STRONG NOUNS.—DECLENSION I.

83.—II. Case -endings from

stem -ia-}-i'clatioual suffixes.

Stem . hirdia, ni., ricia, u.,

shepherd. realm.

Theme bird. ric.

Singular.—JVbm. Lirde rice

hirdes rices

hirde rice

hirde rice

liirde rice

hirde rice

Gen. .

Dat..

AceVoc.Inst. .

PluealJVom.

Gen. .

Bat. .

Ace.Voc. .

Inst. .

hirdas

hirc^c^

hirdtwi

hirdas

hirdas

hirdtwn

YXCIO

ricc^

Yicum

xicu

Yicicm

84.—III. Case -endings from

stem -1+ relational suffixes.

byri, m., foti, m., mani, m,,

son. foot. man.

byr fot man

byre

byres

byre

byre

byre

byre

byre, -ds

byre*

hyrumbyre, -ds

byre, -ds

hynwi

fut

fotes

fet, fote

f6t

fot

fet, fot^

manmannes

menmanmanmen.

fot, futas menf6t(<l manned

f6tic7n vaa.nm(7n

fet, fotas men

fet, fotas menfotum mannum

83, a. Latin, O. Lat. Gothic. Gothic. Gothic. O. Sax. O. Norse.

Stem filio, m., harja, ni., hairdja, m., kunja, n., hirdja, m., herja, m.,

son. army. shepherd. land. shepJierd. army.

Sing.—t

A'bm....filiu-s, fili(s) harji-s hairdei-s kuni hirdi her-r

Gen. ... filii, fili harji-s hairdei-s kunji-s hird-je-s, -eas her-s

Dat filio harja hairdja kunja hird-je, -ea her-i

Ace fili-um, fili-m hari hairdi kuni hirdi her

Voc fili hari hairdi kuni hirdi

Inst..... hirdju

Plural.—iV. ^-F. filii harj6-s hairjo-s kunja hird-j6-s(neut.-i)herja-r

Gen filiorum, filium harje hairdje kunjc hird-j6, -eo herja

D. d; I., filiis harja-ni hairdja-m kunja-m hird-ju-n herju-m

Ace filios harja-ns hairdja-ns kunja hird-jo-s(neut.-i) herja

When a single short syllable precedes the stem -ja, Gothic masculines

follow harja, otherwise hairdja. The O. H. German has hirti, hirtes, hirta,

hirti, hirtu ; hirta, hirto, hirtum, hirta; neuter kunni, kunnies (kunnes),

kunnje {kunne), kunni, kunnju {kunnu) ; kunni, kunnjo {kunneo, kunno).

kunnjum (kunnum), kunni. The O. Friesic retains of this declension only

a nominative e<Cja- For changes in endings, see ^^ 71, 72, 85.

8 1, a. The comparative grammar of the i-stems is reserved for the fem-

inine forms, §^ 88, 89. The plural -as conforms with the a-stems.

STEMS IN lA, R, ND. 43

85. {Stem in ia.)—Like hirde decline masculines in -e and -ere:

bere, barley ; ele, oil; ege, awe ; ende, end

; mece, sword; spenge,

sponge ; freond-scipe^ friendship ; fiscere^ fisher; huntere., hunter.

Like rice decline strong neuters in -e and diminutives in -incle :

pite, punishment ; yrfe, heritage ;lidincle, a little joint ; rdpincle,

a little rope, etc. Most neuters originally in ia conform with

pord, or are now masculine.

(a.) The -e of the singular nominative, accusative, and vocative is by

precession from -id. In the earlier forms a stem -e<C-i is occasionally

found elsewhere : hirdeds'^hirdas, hirdea^hirdd, hirdeum^hirdum ; me-

ced'^mecd, etc. The i has sometimes a quasi- gemination to ig, ige, the

g or ge representing an opening of the organs from the f-position (^ 28, 2 ;

27, 5) : here (Gothic harjis), herigds, herigeds, hergds, etc., hosts.

{b.) Many words originally in -ia, which have dropped the nominative -e,

and a:re declined like pulf, are seen to have i-umlaut or other assimilation

when compared with other languages : rec<Crece (Old H. German rouch),

smoke; so some i-stems : gxst, gest, gyst, gist ; ^ilur. gystds, giestds, etc.;

gastd, etc., guest (Gothic gasts; plur. gastcis, ^ 89).

86. {Stem in i. §§ 89-91.)—Few remains are found of mascu-

lines in -i. Byre ; bite, bite; dryre, fall

; hete, hate; sele, hall, oc-

cur ; cyme, coming, has a plural ;some t«-stems conform : pine,

friend; hsele, man ; hyge, mind

; mere, sea. Like byre decline

leode, men, and compounds of -pare (called by Grein fern. plur.

of leod, people, pan<, state, but which seem quasi-adjectives like

Latin liomani) : burhpare, citizens; Cant-pare, Kentish folks

;

names of peoples : Dene, Danes; Momdne, Romans.

Umlaut.—IjWQfot decline tod, tooth; and see § 91.

87. {Stems in -r and -nd.)

SixGULAR,— r-stem. nd-stem.

J\^07n.,A.,&V. hvodoY. feond.

Gen brodor. feondes.

Dat. <& Inst. . . . breder. feonde.

Plural.—]Srom.,A.,<&iV. brodru, brodor. fj-nd, feond, -as.

Gen brodra. feonda.

Dat. & Inst... . brodrum. feondum.

The changes 6 to ^,a to e, and eo to p, are i-umlaut concealed. ^ 32, 2.

These irregulars conform to the f-stems. ^ 91, 4, 5. For others, see § 100.

The Gothic has hropar,brupr-s,hropr,brd])ar ; plur. (like w-stems) brop-

ju-s, bropr-Ci brdj/r-u-m, bropr-ii-ns. The other Teutonic tongues show pe-

culiar forms (often undeclined) in their r- and ?j</-stems. See ^ 100,f.

44 DECLENSION II. (FEMININES).

Stem in a or i. Genitive sincrulai" i" ©•

88.— I. Case - endings iVoni

stem a+relational suftixes.

gif.

gift«.

Stem ....

Theme.. .

SiXGULAK.—JVoTiiinative .

Genitive ....

Dative

Accusative . .

Vocative gif«

Instrumental.

Plural.—Kominative . .

Genitive . .

Dative. . . .

Accusative . . .

Sifa,gift.

gife.

gife.

gUu, gife.

hi.

aifc.

gif(?, gif,2.

gifa, giiend.

gifum.

gif(?, gife.

Vocative S^^^i 8^^^'

Instrimiental.

88.—1(a).

gi^wn.

II.—Case-endings from stem

i-f relational suffixes.

dffidi, deed.

dffid.

dffid.

dffide.

dffide.

dffid, dffide.

dffid.

d&de.

dtede, dffid^,

djedfl

djedwm.

dffide, d«dd.

da;de, dffid<^.

dsedi^w?.

Stem.1

Singular.—Nominative..

Sniifknt.

a^va,

mare.

a9va,

G reck.

Xwpa.room.

Xojpa

Genitive a9va-j-as \ojpa-Q-

Dative .

Accusative...

Vocative

Instrumental

Pldkal.—Nominative . .

Genitive

a9vai "^

a9va-j-ai )

a9va-ra

a9ve

a9va-j-a

a9va-sas

acva-s

X^Jpa-v

Xiopa

{Dat.)

Latin.

equa,

mare.

equa

equa-es ~i

equa-i ,-

equae )

equal )

equ» )

equa-m

equa

{Ahlat.)

X^paiequas

equa-s

IXojpoJv equa-rum

Gothic.

giba,

sift-

giba

gibo-s

gibai

giba

giba

{Dat.)

gibci-s

gibo

Old Saxon,

geba,

wft.

geba

gebo >

geba )

gebo )

gebu )

geba

(Nomin.')

(Dative.')

geba

gcbo-n-o

01(1 Norse.

giafa,

giof

giafa-r

gi6f(u)

giof

(Nomin.')

(Dative.)

giafa-r

giafa

/ r . N ( equa-bus ") ., «

(Local.) <^

> gibo-m( equis )

( a9va-n-am i

Dative a9va-blijas

Accusative... a9va-s X''^P"'C equa-s gibo-s

The Old High German hd.s geba, g'ebd {a),geb6 (u), geba, geba ; g'ebo (a),

gebono, g'cbom, gcbo (a). The 0. Friesic has siug.jeve; T^\nT.jeva,jevend

{jevd),jevum {on),jcva.

( gebu-n (

( gebo-n (

geba

gicifu-m

giiifo-ni

giafa-r

STRONG FEMININES. 45

(b.) To the 1st class belong all femiuiues in v. They are few :

fa7'ii, ^onvney ; l>.ffu,\ove; sceamu, shame; scohc, school

] pracii,

revenge j compounds in -paru {burh-paric, state, etc.).

(c.) For the Parent Speech, add the endings in § 62 to the stem. Grav-

itation has carried away all the consonants from the Anglo-Saxon case-end-

ings except the m of the dative plural, which is a nasalizing of the original bh

(^ 71, b) ;71 in gifend is euphonic epenthesis (^ 50), as in Sanskrit, a con-

formation with the weak form in an ; m in gifum (gifdm) assimilates the a

(^ 35, 2, a). The plural -d suffered precession in late Anglo-Saxon to -a,

then to -e, which in English drops. The original -d is retained in the para-

digms as the classic sound.

(</.) Plural -e is a conformation with the ^-stems, influenced also perhaps

by the Latin. In the sixth century, Latin se^=e ; -m, -s were silent.

(e.) Root a sometimes suffers shifting to a?, or even i-umlaut to e, before

-e : 5acu, strife, genitive ssece ; pracu,TeYenge,ddiii\eprace,prxce,prece,etc. ^^41,32.

(/.) Here also are placed nouns in -0<i-ti undeclinable in the singular,

from adjectives : yld-u, -o, -e (eld, age), plur. yldu, -o, -e, yldd, yldum ; plural

nom. and ace. in a is found : yldd (Grein),yrwirfff, miseries. So arfe/o, nobil-

ity ; brmdo, breadth, etc. The plural is rare. Similar words in Gothic are

weak : manag-eins (multitude), -ein, -ein, -ei, plur. manag-cins, -eino, -eim,

-eins. O. H. German has -in for -ein; O. Saxon has strong forms. The

A.-Saxon words conform with the a-stems. ^ 40, 1.

{g.) For duru, door; ^e, law ; leo, bee ; ea, river ; sx, sea

; forms from

j'a-stems, etc., see ^ 100 ; for Northumbrian forms, see page 49.

89.— (88, II.) Stem in i.

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Old Saxon. Old Norae.

(^vi, ofi, ovi, anstai, ansti, asti,

1 slieep. sheep. sheep. love. love. love.

Singular.—Xom rtvi-3 oft-c ovi-s anst-s anst ast

Gen avj-as opt-oc ovi-s anstai-s ansti, ensti ast-ar

Dat tivj-ai Loco^-i Loc. oy\ anstai ansti, ensti ast-u

Ace avi-m i)\i-v ove-m anst anst ast

Yoc ave oRi (Norn) anst (Nam.') (Nom.)

Inst avj-a (Dative.) Ahl. oyiid) (Dative.) (Dative.) (Dative.)

Pliirai..—Nom. & Yoc. dvaj-as ("fi-fc ovu-s anstci-s ansti, ensti asti-r

Gen avi-n-am opt'-wi'ovi-um anste anstjo, enste-6 ust-a

Dat avi-bhjas Zoc. ("fi-fft ovi-lms ansti-m anstju-n, enstjn-n ast-um

Ace avi-s opi-ac ovc-s ansti-ns ansti, ensti asti

The O. High German has anst, ensti anst, ensti anst, anst ; ensti, enstj-o

cnsteo, ensti-m, ensti. The Old Friesic has ned, nede, nede, nede ; neda,

ncda, ncd-d, ncdi-m<.ncdem, -urn, -on, ncda. Masc. and neut. /-stems were

common in the older tongues ; but few masc. survive in A. -Sax. ^^ 64, d ; 86.

46 DECLENSION II.—I-STEMS.

90—11. C

Stem .

Theme

Singular

I^om. .

Gen. . .

Dot. . .

Ace. . .

Vbc. . .

Inst. . .

Plural.—

JVbm. .

Gen. . .

Dot, . .

Ace. . .

Vbc. . .

Inst. . .

Stem,

Theme

Singular

]Vb?n. .

Gen. .

Bat. .

Ace. .

Vbc. .

list. .

Plural.

Gen. .

Dat. .

Ace. .

Vbc. .

Inst. .

ase-endings < stem i + rel. suffixes. Nomiuative in —.

1. dc-edi, deed. 2. pynni,/*«?j. 3. beadpi, battle.

d<ed. pynn. beadp (u, o), beadup.

djed.

diwde.

d&dc.

j dffid,

( d^de.

died,

d^de.

dffide {a).

dffidfl

d^di«?2.

d&de ((?).

d&de («).

4. boci, Joo/w

boo.

b6c.

boce.

bee.

boc

boc.

bee.

bee.

hoed.

hocum.

bee.

bee.

hocum.

pynne.

pynnc.

pyn.

pynne.

pyn-

pynne.

j pyn. j

( pynne. (

beadu (o).

beadpe, beadupe.

beadpe, beadupe.beadu (o),

beadpe, beadupe.beadu (o).

beadpe, beadupe.

pynne (a), beadpe (a), beadupe (a).

pynna. beadpd, beadupa.

\yyi\num. beadpt<m, beadupto?z.

pynne («). beadpe (a), beadupe (d).

pyune (d). beadpe (a), beadupe (a).

'pymnan. headpum, beadup^^m.

5. mftsi, mouse.

mfts.

mils,

muse,

mys.

mils.

m<is.

rays.

mys.mA^d.

ratiswm.

m^s.

mys.ixiAmmi.

6. ceasteri, city.

ceaster, ceastr.

ceaster.

ceastre.

ceastre.

jceaster.

{ceastve.

ceaster.

ceastre.

ceastre {d).

ceastrtl

ceastrt^m.

ceastre {d).

ceastre (d).

ceastrt^?^.

91. To the 2d class belong all ferainines ending in a consonant:

they arc simple monosyllables; derivatives in -e?, -e?i, -er ; -ung ;

STRONG NOUNS (FEMININES). 47

->ils, -nes; -es ; -oc ; -od, -ud^ d; p-; nearly all strong feminines

conform.

(a.) The feminines of the first Sanskrit declension are a-stems and

2-stems.

{b.) The apocope of stem i in the singular nominative, accusative, and

vocative, is the effect of gravitation (^ 38). That short roots retain the stem

vowel {gifu, etc.). while long roots drop it {daid, etc.), shows compensation

(^ 37). Compare the feminine of the strong adjectives.

(c.) The singular accusative -e, the plural nominative, accusative, and

vocative -c?, and dative -nin<^-im., are conformations with the 1st class.

SS 40, 1.

A. (1. Common Form.)—Like dsbd decline words of this de-

clension ending in a syllable long by nature or position : dr, honor ;

Mn^ prayer ; Mr, lore; rod, cross ; pund, wound

; pyrd, fate; ge-

sammmg, assembly ;so also ides, woman, and some other words

in a short syllable.

(a.) Except words like hoc and mils (4, 5), and like da, cleo (^ 100).

(b.) Many have sometimes -d in the dative : some originally -u stems re-

taining it, others conforming—words in -ung oftenest. § 93, i.

B. (2. Geinination)—Like pyn decline words of this declen-

sion ending short in a consonant : ben, wound ; hlis, bliss; hen,

lien; hyrgen, sepulcher ; gpnen, care

; prtnis, trinity, etc.

(3. Semivowel Gemination.)—Like headu decline feminines in

p>t« (§ 30) : gearu, gear ; sccadu, shadow, but sceade, sceadd are

found; rsesu, providence; seonu, sinew.

(a.) Except syncopated forms like ceaster, and a few like d&d.

{b.) For the simplification of gemination pynny-pyn, see § 20, Rule 13.

(c.) The II of vp is made in closing the organs to^ (^ 27, 5). It maysuffer precession to o>e (^ 38). Final^>i< is shifting (§ 30

; 41, 2).

C. (4, 5. Umlaut.)—Like boc decline broc, breeches ; gds, goose.

Like mils decline Ms, louse;for cit, cow ; burh, borough ; tur/,

turf, see § 100. Note also dohtor, speoster, moder.

(a.) The changes in the roots of boc, mus, etc., are i-umlaut concealed;

bec<bdci (Old Saxon boci), ^ 32, 2.

D. (6. Syncope.)—Like ceaster decline syncopated words of

this declension : they end in an unaccented vowel beforeI, n, r,

or sometimes other single consonants (§ 40) : sapel, soul; stefen,

voice; lifer, liver

; meoluc, milk. Unsyncopated forms occur.

E. For forms from ?a-stems; hand, hand

; niht, night ; piht,

whit, see § 100. For Northumbrian forms, see page 49.

48 DECLEIS'SIUN III. (U-STEMS).

92. STRONG NOUNS (MASCULINES).I. Jlcacl-cases in a Voiccl.—Genitive iu a. (Declension III.)

Case-endings < stem ii + relational suffixes. Xominative in u.

Feminine hand (hand) is added.

Stem 1. sunu, son. 2. handu, hand.

Theme sun. hand.

No'minative. . sun?/. hand.

Genitive sund hand^.

Dative sunc2, sunz^ liandt:?, hand.

Accusative . . . sunz^ hand.

Vocative sun?^ hand.

Instrumental. suna. handa, hand.

Plukal.—nominative. . &\xmi (o), sunc^. handa.

Genitive \'

^ [• handd.( Bunewa. )

Dative &\\\nan. handtwr.

Accusative... suni< (o), suna. handa.

Vocative sun?< (o), sun<?. liandd.

Instrumental. ^mnim. handwm.

93. To the third declension belong suniij pudu^vioo^', magu,servant : and bregu, prince ; headu-, fight ; heoru, sword

; lagxi^

lake; meodu, mead; salu, hall; sidu, custom, and a few others,

found mostly in the singular nominative and accusative, and in

composition.

(a.) This declension corresponds to the Latin second in so far as it con-

tains those masculine nouns which have their head-cases in a vowel, and so

is a complement of declension second. In its original stem it corresponds to

the Latin fourth. ^ 101, b.

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gotliic. Old Saxon. Old Noree.

f sunu, vtKv, fructu, siuiu, sunu, sonu,btcm

) /> -^( son, corpse. ji-uit. son. son, son.

Singular.—Nominative.. sunii-s vtKv-g fructu-s sxmu-s sunu, -o £on-r

^ . . « , . ,. A fsun(u)-o)Genitive sunv-as viKv-oc fructu-s sunau-s S . ,- sona-r

( sunje-s )

Dative from ( sunau ) , (fructu-i) (sunu, -o,)< . , . r v(Kv-i J

^ > smiau -< . >• sjtiiLocative... (. sunav-i) ( fructu) (, sunje )

Accusative. . . sunii-m v'tKV-v fructu-m sunu sunu, -o son

Vocative sA'no vtKV (Nomin,) sunau, -u (^Nomin.) (Nomin.)

Instrumental. sunii-n-a (Dat.) {Ablat,') (^Dative.} sunju {Dative.)

STRONG NOUNS (MASCULINES). 49

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Old Saxon. Old Norse.

„ ( sunu, vtKv, fructu, sunu, sunu, sonu.Stem i

'

. .

' '

<- son. corpse. Jruit. son. son. son.Plural.—

-.-^. . fsunav-as) , c .'Nominative, -j , . ^ viKv-ic, iructu-s suniu-s sum syni-r

( sunv-as )., .1

Genitive sunii'-n-am vncv-uv fructu-um suniv-e sunj-o, -eo son-a

Dative sunu-bhjas (^Locat.') fructi-bus sunu-m sunu-n sonu-m

. . ( sunu'-n ) , ^ .

Accusative.. ^, ^ , r viKv-ag Iructu-s sunu-ns sum sonu(. sunv-as ) ^

The Old High German has sunu (0), suncs, sunju (sunu), sunu (0), sunju

(sunu) ; suni, sunjo, siinim (sunum), sunt (u). The li-declension is near-

ly extinct. O. Fries, sun-u (0), -a -a, -u ; -ar (-a), -a, -um, -ar (-a).

(b.) Gravitation has carried away all the consonants from the Anglo-Saxon

case-endings, except the -in of the dative plural, which is a nasalizing of the

original bh. ^ 38.

(c.) The Gothic du of the genitive and dative singular is a' progressionfrom u (sunu-as'^sundu-as^sundus),^ 38, 1. The Anglo-Saxon a nearly

resembles it, and is retained in the paradigms as the classic sound, though it

suffered precession in later times.

(d.) The instrumental sund, handd are dative forms.

(e.) The plural -u^-0 is precession : it is found also in the singular.

§38, 1.

(/.) The plural -d and -end conform to the second declension.

(g.) Note the umlaut and shifting in the Old Norse : 5>r, v^O, U^i/.

(h.) Hand conforms almost wholly to the first declension.

(i.) Some words originally w-stems retain the forms of this declension in

single cases, especially in the singular dative -a, and plural nominative, ac-

cusative, and vocative -u: feldd, field; fordd, ford

; sumord, summer; pin-

trd, pintru, winter ; dura, door. Some words of other stems conform in the

same cases : peoruldd, world ; gehrodru, brothers ; dohlru, daughters ;mo-

dru, mothers ; gespeostru, sisters ; feminines in -ung.

(k.) For irregular forms o?pudu, magu, hand, etc., see § 100.

94. NoRTUUMBPvIAX.

Feminines, Declension II.—In words of the First Class -a is found for

Common Anglo-Saxon -u or -e. Feminines sometimes have -es in the geni-

tive singular and -as in the plural, and then may pass for masculines.

Singular.—Norn, geffl.Plural.—Nom. ge^ds.

Gen.. geks(aes). Gen., gefena.

Dat.. gefa. Dat.. gefwm.

Masculines, Declen. I. and III.—Here a for u is found : suria for sunu ;

also the complete descending series o(H: sicno, sune, sun, sun.§1 38, 1.

Nouns strong in Common Anglo-Saxon often have weak forms or mixed

strong and weak forms in Northumbrian. The genitive -end abounds.

D

50 DECLENSION IV.—AN-STEMS.

05. WEAK NOUNS.

Case-endings < stem an + relational suffixes.—Genitive in an

(Declension IV.)

1. Masculines. 2. Feminines. 3. Neuters.

hanan, tungan, eagan,

tongue. eye.Stem .

•1

ThemeSlJJGULAK.-

Noin.

Gen. .

Bat. .

Ace. .

Voc. .

Inst. .

Plural.—Nom.Gen. .

Dat. .

Ace. .

Voc. .

Inst. .

code.

ban.

bana.

banavi.

hana>i.

banaw.

bana.

bana;?.

bana/i.

banewa.

banaw.

bana?*.

ban?<m.

tung.

tunge.

tungan.

tungaw.

tunga?^.

tunge.

tungaw.

tungan.

tungewd.

Iwn^uni.

tungan.

tungan.

tungwm.

eag.

cage.

e^i^an.

eagan.

eage.

eage.

eagan.

eagan.

eagend.

eag?(!/n.

eagan.

eaccan.

eag?«n.

Contracts.

taan,

toe.

ta.

tae, ta.

taan, tan.

taan, tan.

taan, tan.

tae, ta.

taan, tan.

taan, tan.

iaend, tana.

taum.

taan, tan.

taan, tan.

imcni.

To the weak declension belong certain monosyllable themesand derivative themes in -ig, -I, -m, -n, -r, -s, -p, all adding -a or

-e in the nominative.

(a.) Stems in -an are of the third declension in Latin and Greek.

WEAK NOUNS. 51

(b.) The singular case-endings are sloughed off; and, in the nominative,

n of the stem. In the genitive plural, d has held its ground, and gravitation

has modified the stem : a> e> — : arena, drnd, honor. The dative has

ecthlipsis of n (^ 47), and assimilative precession of am to icm (^ 35, 2, a).

(c.) Feminines in Gothic strengthen to o the a of the stem -an through-

out, and the d of the case-ending of the genitive plural. In Anglo-Saxon

all genders agree ;but feminines in the nominative, and neuters in the nom-

inative, accusative, and vocative, for final a take e (Precession, ^ .38).

(d.) The stem in a)l was mostly masculine, but has been going over to

the feminines in the Teutonic tongues (^ 67, 2).

(e.) The same peculiar gravitation which has brought the short fl-stems

to the form of consonant stems in declension first, has here produced a new

declension by sloughing away the endings and stem. This new declension

has been adopted by the Teutonic nations as their favorite for secondary

formations having the force of an adjective used as a noun, and for definite

adjectives ;and it has in the Teutonic tongues a historical and logical im-

portance coordinate with the strong forms. In English the Norman -s join-

ed with -5 of the Anglo-Saxon first to kill it, and oxen, with the irregular

children, brethren, is almost its only memorial in current speech.

96. Like hana decline all weak nouns in -a : bana, deatli;

cempa, soldier ; c^rcyx^, drop ; ffiana, man; himta, huntei'; mona,

moon; oxa, ox

; prcccca, exile; nafela, navel

; hodnia^ covering ;

geongra, disciple; egesa^ awe; rwspa, general; gemaca, mate.

Some remains of stems in -icai arc found : preccea =precca, ag-

Idbcea^ monster, etc.

97. Like tunge decline all weak noims in -e: byrne, mail;

eorde, earth; heorte, heart

; sunne, sun; sgrce, sark

; puce, Aveek;

hlsefdige, lady ; f&mne, woman; ^iscdre, snake

; pudupe, widow.

(a.) Except the four neuters (§ 98).

(6.) Now and then forms are found in -can for -an, either remains of

stems in -ian, or conforming to such stems : cyrice, cyricean, church.

98. Like edge decline edre, ear ; lunge, lungs ; clype, clew.

99. Like tCt decline bed,hee,bedn, etc.; and masculine /reaa>

fred, freaan yfredn, lord ; tpeoa > iped, tpeoan > tpeon^ doubt.

ISToRTiiuMBRiAN.— (WeoJc Kouns. )

Final -n and -in drop. The a of -an often suffers precession in the

masculines to O or c, in the feminines and neuters to %i, 0, or e. Nouns

weak in Common Anglo-Saxon have often strong forms, or mixed strong

and weak in Northumbrian : noma (nama), name, genitive nojna, names.

By comparing pages 49, 61, it will be seen that the Northumbrian forms

vary irregularly between forms older than the Common Anglo-Saxon and

others modified by gravitation and conformation almost as much as the En-

glish. See page 1'.).

52 IRREGULAR NOUNS.

100. IRREGULAR NOUNS.Such arc Avithout case-endings (Indeclinable), or without

certain cases (Defective) ;or they vary in gender (Hetekogk-

NEOUs), in stem (Metaplasts), in case-endings (Heteroclites) ;

or they arc remains of dead declensions {Meliquicc, Relics) ;or

are disguised by iihouctic changes (Cryptoclites) . The same

noun may belong to several of these classes.

(a.) Indeclinable are many nouns in -li^O (^ 88,/) : wdclu, f. no-

bility; h:ctu, f. heat; hccVutu, f. highth, etc.;and w, f. law; bco, hi, f. bee,

pi. declined.

(i.) Defective.—Without tlie pkiral are most proper, abstract, and ma-

terial names : Mlfred ; s^ren^rfw, f. strength ; ^oZc?, n. gold. Sometimes

the plural has a change of meaning : A, rites; gifla (w), nuptials ; leode,

men? -pare, men 1 Without the singular are fileni, n. wings; frds, m.

men ; frwlpe, f. ornaments ; gearpe, f. trappings ; geatpc, f. equipment ; ge-

brdctor(u), m. brothers ; gespeostor, f. sisters ; gespeoru, n. hills ; getimbru,

n. building ; lendenu, n. loins ; niddus, men ; -paran, -paras, -pare, m. citi-

zens; peleras (-o), m. f. lips.

(c.) Heterogeneous.—Masculine and Neuter are deufol, devil; dogor,

day; feorh, life ; frid, peace; gcpanc, mind ; God, m., plur. godas, m.,

godu, n. God, idols ; gyrii, distress ; heafod, n. head, plur. sometimes heaf-

dus,xa..; Aeajo, heap ; hilt,\d\i\ holt, \\o\i; nrceJ, house ; tungoI, star; p&l,

weel ; pesten, waste ; pam, spot ; polcen, cloud ; brim, sea; cealf, calf

Feminine and Neuter are sebylgd, offense ; xdelu, sing, f., plur. n. nobil-

ity ; safest, envy ; gepeaht, counsel ; gift, dower; grin, snare

; liget, light-

ning ; peostor, n., peostru, f. darkness; pwd, pwde, weeds; piht, whit.

Masculine and Feminine are ierist, resurrection ; bend, bond; hearg,

grove; list, art; nedhpest,{. m. vicinage; ^a;, sea ; siel, luck; str&l, arrow;

sper, column; peard, watch ; pelerds {-a), lips ; leod, f. a people, plur. m. ?

leode, men ; paru, f. state, plur. -pare, m. ? citizens (^ 86) ; est, love.

Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter are pred, throe ; pxstm, growth.

(d.) Metaplasts.— Forms from stems in -la, -lan, mix with others:

plencu, f. pomp, plur. gen. plcnced ; c&g, f. key, plur. nom. c&gid ; fisc, m.

fish, plur. nom. fisceds ; Ixce, m. leech, plur. nom. Iwceds; clrice, f. church,

plur. nom. ciricean. From w-stems : duru, pudu, magu, like sunu {^ 92),

also gen. dure ? pudes, plur. nom. pudds, magds ; hand, etc. (^ 93, i). Tosome stems -cr is added : wg, egg; cealf calf; cild, child (^ 82). Stems

with and without quasi-gemination (^^ 81,91) : sceadu, f. shadow, dat. scea-

dvpc, sceadc ; fri, freo, m. freeman, plur. nom. frige, freo. Metathesis :

fisc, m. fish, plur. nom. fixds. Many conforming regulars, and heteroclites,

are metaplastic

(e.) Heteroclites.— Many beterogeneous strong nouns (1) with ]\Iascu-

line and Neuter endings: God, m. God, plur. m. Godds, n. Godu; heafod,

n. head, plur. n. heafodu, plur. m. hcafdds. (2) With Feminine and Neu-

is

IRREGULAR NOUNS. 53

ter endings : skfest, envy, gen. n. &festes, pi. nom. f. xfeste ; gift, f. dower,

plur. nom. f. gifld, n. giftu; grin, snare, inst. grine, grine, plur. nom. grind,

grinu. (3) With Masculine and Feminine : hend, bond, plur. nom. bendds,

-a, -e ; sx, sea, gen. s&s, ssb; pelcrds, -a, lips. Many themes have both

weak and strong forms : heofon, heofon-e, heaven ; sunn-u, sunn-c, sun ;

-par-ds, -par-an, men ; but such are given as different words. Some mix :

cwg, f. key, gen. avgan, dat. c&ge, plur. nom. cxgid, dat. cxgum.

(/.) Relics of the r-stem are brodor, hrother (^ 87); modor, mother;

Jy/j^or, daughter ; iy^cos^o?-, sister ; gebrudor, gcbrudru (dual ?), brothers ;

gespeostor, sisters ; fasdcr, father, sing, indecl. has also gen. and pi. forms of

Declension Third ; of the ?ic?-stem are fcond, fiend (^ 87) ; frcond, friend ;

and (compound) participial nouns : ymb-sittend, neighbors, plur. nom. ; fold-

buend, farmers; i)lur. nom. sometimes in -ds, gen. -rd, like adjectives; of

other consonant stems : neaht, f. night, gen. nihte, nihtes, generally adverb-

ial, plur. nom. niht ; piht, f. whit, plur. nom. (piht, Grimm) pihtd, pihtu,

pihte; burg, f. borough, gen. byrg, bi/rig; man, man (^ 84).

{g.) Cryptoclites.—The most common obscure forms spring from

1. Concealed umlaut. See, for paradigms, Jtic, book ; 7/im5, mouse (^ 90) ;

fot, foot ; man, m.an (^ 84) ; brodcr, brother ; fcond, fiend {^ 87) ;like are

brbc, breeches ; gos, goose ; tod, tooth ; lus, louse; mus, mouse

; cu, f. cow,

gen. cits (Rask), dat. cy, ace. cu, plur. nom. cy, eye {cus, Rask), gen. cund,

dat. cum ; burg, burh, f. borough, gen. byrig, burge, dat. byrig, byrg, plur.

nom. byrig, gen. burgd, dat. burgum; turf, f. turf, dat. tTjrf; modor, dolitor,

speostor; freond, friend.

2. Quasi-gemination of semi-vowels : paradigms of bcadu, battle (^ 90,

3) ; here, host {^ 85, a). Like are frxlupe (a), frcetpe (d), f. plur. orna-

ment; gearpe, f. plur. trappings ; gcalpc, f. plur. equipment ; ncaru, f. nar-

rowness; ra;5t(, f. providence ; scon?/, f. sinew

; ??ie/i<, n. meal; eaZw, n. ale,

etc.; and fri, freo, m. freeman, plur. x\. frige, freo ; pine, m. friend, plur.

nom. pinds, pine, gen. pind, pinid,pinigd, pmiged, da.t. pi7ium, ace. pinds,pine.

3. Apothesis and Contraction—words in ?<>0 indeclinable (^ 100, a).

bi, beo, f. bee, sing, indeclinable, plur. nom. beon, gen. beond, dat. bcoum,

eld, f. claw, plur. nom. cldpe, dat. cJdm. [beom.

dry, rn. magician, dat. dry, plur. nom. dryds, gen. dryrd.

ed, f. river, gen. cd, &, cds (m.), dat. cd (ie, Rask), plur. nom. cd, cds (m.),

dat. cdm.

feoh, fco, n. fee, gen. f&us, dat. fco; plur. nom. fco, gen. fcona, fed

(<Cfeohd): so hreoh, pleoh, peoh, etc.

hoh, ho, m. bough, gen. hus, dat. ho, plur. nom. hos, gen. hud, etc.

hrdp, hr&p, hredp, hrd, hrcd, n. sing, and plur. nom. ace. voc. body, corpse,

gen. hriJbs {<Chr&pes), plur. nom. hr&pds, dat. hr&pum.

morgen, m. morning, plur. gen. morgcnd, morgnd, mornd.

sA, m. f sea, gen. sii:s, s&pe, sx, dat. 5a', si'pe, plur. nom. sihs, s&, dat.

SCO, f. pupil, gen. seon, scdn. sugu, su, f. sow, d. sue. [sxm, sxpum.

treop, treb, n. tree, gen. treopes, plur. nom. treopu, tripu, treop, treo.

}}red, f. m. n. throe, indeclinable, plur. dat. predum, predm.

54 TROrER NAMES.

101. PROPER NAMES.

(1.) Persons.— JVames of icomen in -u or a consonant are

stronrf, those in -e or -a «re tcca/c. Declension II., d-stem : Begu,

Freaparu ;i-stem : Beadoliilcl, Ilygd, and most others. Declen-

sion IV.: Elene, Eve, Ada, Maria, etc., from foreign names ;

Pealhl)eo(p), dat. Pealhl^eun (§ 99).

Names ofmen in -u, -e, or a consonant are strong, those in -a

are xoeah. Declension III., xi-stem : Leofsiinu ? Declension I,a-stem: iElfred, Beupulf, Eadmund, Sigemund {gen. also Sige-

inuiKle<mund,/'. iias/t) ? Poland, and -most other strong names ;

syncopated: Ecg]3eo(p), gen. Ecgl)e6pes, Ecg]3eues, etc.; Ongen-

])eu(p); Gvende], <7e?^. Grendeles, Grendles, etc.; Hredcl;

ia-

stem: Ine, Hedde, Gislhere, Pulfhere, Eadpiue, Godpine, and

others from -here and -pine; umlaut not found: Hereman, dat.

lleremanne. Declension IV.: iEtla, Becca, and many others.

(a.) Foreign names sometimes retain foreign declension, or are unde-

clmcd, but are generally declined as above ; those in -as, -es, -us do not

often increase m the genitive. Those from Latin -us, Greek -oq, of the

second declension, sometimes drop their endings and take those of the

Anglo-Saxon first: Crist (< Christus), Cristes, Criste, eic. In less fa-

miliar ivords -us oftenest stands in the nom. and gen., but sometimes the

Latin and Anglo-Saxon forms mix throughout: Petrus, gen. Petrus, Petres,

Petri, dat. Petro, Petre, ace. Petrus, Petrum;so -as and -es : Andreas, gen.

Andreas, dat. Andrea, ace. Andrews, Andream; Herodes, Herodes, Herodc,

Herod-em, -es, or -e.

(b.) hi Gothic these Latin and Greek names of the second declension are

regiilarlij given in the u-declcnsion : Paitrus, gen. Paitraus, dat. Paitrau,

ace. Paitru (^ 93, a). The Anglo-Saxon genitive Petrus may be a relic

of the u-declension.

(2.) Peoples.—Plurals in -as a7id -e are strong, in -an iceaJc.

Declension I, a-stem : Brittas, Scottas, etc. ; ia-stem and i-stem :

Dene, ge^i. Den-a, -ia, -iga, -gea (§ 85, a) ; Romane, etc. Declen-

sion IV. : Gotan, Seaxan, etc.

Tlie singular is oftenest an adjective in -isc regularly declined:

Egyptisc \\\^w, Egrjptian man ; Egyptisc idies, Egyptian woman;J)a Egyptiscan, the Egyptians, etc. Sometimes an Brit, a Briton.

Often isfound a collective loith a genitive, or with an adjective,

or compounded : Seaxnal)e6d; Filistea folc; Caldeacyn; Ebrea

peras; Sodomisc cyn ; Rom-pare (§ 86); Nord-men (§84, 3),eic.

Foreign names are treated as are names ofpersons.

(3.) CouNTKiES,—A fell} feminiyie names are found: Engel,

England ; Bryten, Britannia. Oftenest is found the jjeople's

SUMJVIARY OF CASE-ENDINGS. 55'

name in the genitive with laud, rice, edel, etc.^ or in an obliquecase icith a preposition : Engla land

; Sodoma rice; on East-En-

glum ;of Seaxum

;on Egyptum. Foreign names are treated as

are names of persons.

(4.) Cities.—Namesfound alone are regularly declined accord-

ing to gender and endings: Rom,/. Rome; Babylon, n. Babylo-nes; Sodoma, m. Sodoman. Oftenest they are prefixed undecUnedto burg, ceaster, pic, dtin, ham, etc.: Luuden-pic, Roma-burg, etc.;

or the folk's name in the genitive followed by burg, ceaster, etc., is

used: Caldea burg. Foreign names treated as names ofpersons.

102. WEATHERING OF C AS E - E NDIN G S.

(1.) Anglo-Saxon : Strong. Weak./

-^, ,

A^

Masculine.|

Neuter.| y^^. I Maso. I

Masc. Fem. Neut.Decl. I.

IDecl. I.

IDecl. II.

I

Decl. III.|

Decl. IV.Head-cases ia a consonant.

j

Head-cases in a vowel.|Head-cases in -an.

Stem a ia i a ia a i u an an an

Singular.—N.&.V. -e e - e u - u a e e

Gen es es es es es e e a. an an an

Dot o e e e e e e a an an an

Ace _ e e - e u, e e,- u an an e

Inst e e e e e e e a. an an an

Plukal.— ^— V —'

N.,A.,&jV. as as e, as u,- u a, e e, a u, 0, a an

Gen u, a a a a a, ena a, cna ena,

D. & In&t. . . um um urn iim um um um um

(2.) Layamon:,

Singular.—N.,A.,&,V. -

e, en - ee, -, en e e, en

Gen es es es ese, -, en, es e, es en, e, es

D.&Inst... e, en e, en e, en e, en e, -, en c en, e

N.,A.,& V. es, en, e e, -, es, en e, en, es e, en, es en, e, es

Gene, ene,en,es e, en, es

e, en, ene, es en, es en, ene, enen

D.&Inst.... en, e, es en, e, es en, es en, es en, e

Here is precession of all the vowels to e {^ 38) (a is found here and there) ;

(2), shifting of VI to n (^ 41, Zi) ; (3), a conflict everywhere between s and

n, the weak and strong form. In the earlier manuscript n most abounds,

in the later s. Norman influence, ^ 95, c.

(3.) Ormulum.—Singular, N., A.,V.,D., I. alilcc ; Genitive -ess. Plural,

all cases alike m -ess. Singular dative -e is found with prepositions in a

few phrases, and Plural genitive -e (Northern dialect).

(4.) Chaucer instead of -ess has -es or -s: king, kinges; lover, lovers.

The last form brings us to Modern English. Irregular forms having um-

laut {^ 100, g), or plural -e?i (^ 'J5, c), or indeclinable from r-stems or neu-

ters plural (^ 100,/), are found in Chaucer, and a few still survive.

IjQ ADJECTIVES.—INDEFINITE DECLENSION,

IV. ADJECTIVES.INDEFINITE AND DEFINITJC DECLENSIONS.

103. An adjective in Anglo-Saxon lias one set of strong and

one of -weak endings for each gender. The latter are used when

the adjective is preceded by the definite article or some word

like it. Hence there are two declensions, the indefinite and the

definite.

10-t.— I. 27ie Indefinite Declension.

Case-endings < stem a, a, or i -|- relational suffixes.

IMasculine. Feminine. Neuter.

<^ j blinda, Llinda, blindi, blinda,* *

( blind. blind. blind:

Theme . blind. blind. blind.

ISTom blind blind (?<) blind

Gen blinder blindj'c bliudcs

Dat \Aiu([um blindre hYm^wnAce blindwe blinde blind

Voc blind blind(?/)

blind

Inst blindc? blindre bl.indc

Plural.—Nom blinde. blinde blindz*

Gen blindrc? blindrt? blindm

Dat blindM?J2 blind^<»^ blindi^»i

Ace blinde blinde bliudw

Voc blinde blinde blindw

Inst hYmdiinn hWndian hWn^uni

(a.) In other Indo-European languages the adjective is declined like the

substantive ;in the Teutonic it follows the pronominal declension. This

has been explained by supposing a composition in the Teutonic between the

adjective stem and a pronoun (in Sanskrit jas, jd, Jad, a relative) which it

is suggested must have been in the Teutonic Parent Speech j'is, ja, jata ;

jis, jizos, jis ; ja7nma, jizai, jamma ; jana, ja, jata ; je, jizai, je ; plural,

jai,j6s,ja; jize,jtz6,jize; jaim; jans,jos,ja, and have had a demonstra-

tive sense. Whether there has been a composition with a particular pro-

noun, or a conformation to the pronominal declension, must, in the absence

of decisive phonetic demonstration, be decided from the meaning ;and the

fact that this is the indefinite form, and is not used where the sense calls for

a demonstrative, weighs heavily against composition with a demonstrative.

(b.) We give the demonstrative pronoun from which comes the definite

article :

THE TRONOMINAL DECLENSION. 57

Stem,

68 ADJECTIVES.—THE DEFINITE DECLENSION.

105.— II. The Definite Declension.

Case-endings < stem an + relational suffixes.

Mascdlike. Fkminine. Nedter.

Stem., blindan, W«i(?. bliudan, blindau,

Theme blind. blind. blind.

Singular.— —~^—'

";

—-^^ "—"^^

Nom se blind«. seo blinde. J^rot blinde.

Gen ]3ges blindan. J)£ere blinda;?. Jjajs blinda??.

Dat l^)am blinda^i. ])a)re blindaw. })am blindaw.

Ace ]5one blinda??. })ii blinda'?^. liffit blinde.

Voc se blinda. seo blinde. l^ait blinde.

Inst]^)y

blind a?^. J)iere blinda;?. J>y blinda?z.

Plural.— *"

v

N'om J)a blinda?i.

Gen ])ara, blindeww.

Dat J)am blindz<??i.

Ace J)a blind«?i.

Voc])a, blind a?i.

Inst J)ara blindzww.

106.—Theme ending Short {Moot Shifting).

Stem., glada, glad. glada, gladi. glada.

Theme glad > glred. glad>gl£ed. glad>gl£ed.

JVbm glsed. glad?^. glred.

Ge}i glades. gisedre. glades.

Dat gladi«?i. glrodre. gladwm.Ace glaedwe. glade. glsed.

Voc glsed. gladt«. glted.

list glade. glaedT'e. glade.

Plural.—JVom glade. glade. glad2^

Ge7i gloedm. gla^dm. glcedrt?.

Dat gladt<m. gladutn. gladum.Ace glade. glade. gladw.

Voc glade. glade. gladz«.

Inst. gladwwi. gladr«?z. glad^^m.

In the Definite Declension it has -yjglad throughout, and agreesAvhollv with blind.

STRONG AND WEAK DECLENSIONS. 59

Neuter.Goth. O. Sax. 0.\0KC.

107.— Strong:

Singular.— Masculine. Feminine.Gothic. O. Sax. O. Norse.

|

Goth. O. Sax. O. Noree.

iYow... blind-s,—

, -!•; -a,—

,—

; (.-ata),—

,-t.

Gen.... blind-is, -as, -s ; -aizos, -aro, -rar ; -is, -as, -s.

Dat XAm^i-avtma, -umu, -tun; -ai, -aro, -ri ; -amma, -umu, -u.

ylcc. ... blind-a?!cr, -an{a), -an; -a, -a, -a; (-ata),—

,-t.

Inst. .. Umd-(lJal.)-u, (Dat.); (Dat.) (Bat.) (Bat); (Bat.) -u, -u.

Plural.—No7n... blind-ai, -a(-e^, -if; -us, -«(-e), -ar ; -a, (-«),

—.

Ge7i. .. hllnd-aizc, -aro, -ru ; -aizu, -aro, -ru ; -aize, -aro, -rd.

Z>. &/. blind-aim, -un, -um ; -aim, -un, -urn; -aim, -un, -um.

Ace... blind-ans, -a{-c), -a; -6s, -a(-e), -ar ; -a, (-m),—

.

"Weak :

Singular.—Norn... blind-a, -o(-a), -i; -6, -a, -a; -6, -a, -a.

Gen blind-ins, -nn, -a; -vns, -un, -u; -ins, -un, -a.

Bat.... blind-i'n, -tin, -a; -on, -un, -u ; -in, -un, -a.

Ace blind-a??, -?»?, -a; -on, -un, -u ; -0, -a, -a.

Inst.... hYmd-(Bat.)(Bat.) (Bat.); (Bat.) (Bat.) (Bat.); (Bat.) (Bat.) (Bat.)

Plural.—Norn... blind-a?2S, -vn, -u; -6ns, -un, -u; -6na, -un, -it.

Gen blind-ane, -6n6, -u; -6n6, -6n6, -u; -ane, -6n6, -u.

B.&,I. blind-a???, -un, -u; -6m, -un, -u; -am, -un, -u.

Ace blind-a?is. -un, -u; -6ns, -un, -u; -6na, -un, -u.

In Old High German flic adjective has the same strong endings as the defi-

nite article (^ 104, b). The weak form has Masculine plinto, -in, -in, -un ;

plur. -un, -0710, -6m, -un: Feminine plinta, -un, -un, -im; plur. -un, -ono,

-um, -un : Neuter plinth, -in, -in, -a ; pi. -iin, -ono, -om, -un. O. Fries, has

strong endings like A.-Sax.,but dat. -a(-c) ; weak forms like its noun. ^ 95.

(a.) The Indo-European languages generally have no separate forms for the

definite adjective ;but the Slavonic and Lithuania have. In them it springs

from composition between the adjective and demonstrative ja (^ 104, a);

Slavonic dobrijj (good), dobraja, dobrojc,

from dobras-\-jas, dobrd-\-ja, dobrat-\-jat ;

Ang.-Sax. g6da-\-sc, g6de-{-se6, g6de-\-pxt.

Grimm suggests that the Teutonic adjective is compounded in a similar waywith the demonstrative 7am (that), English yon. Hcyse suggests a compo-sition with an, one. The Teutonic weak declensions form one whole with

those of the a?i-stems in other Indo-European tongues : as to form, all are a

growth from one stem. This stem is a secondary formation by means of tlie

pronominal affix -an. The force of this affix may be illustrated by compar-

ing it with the pronouns 7aj«, an; many nouns with it are rendered in En-

glish by an adjective+ one : pxdla, poor one; pnrcca, wretched one

; pana,defective one, etc. ; but to call the adjective a compound with cither is likely

to mislead. Compare the explanation of affixes in ^^ 50,03.

GO ADJECTIVES.

As to the logical and historical value of the weak declension, see(} 95, c.

It may give a profound insight into the Teutonic mind to notice here that its

fundamental classification of objects is into those made definite to thought

and those not so.

108. The weak form is used Avhcn the adjective is preceded by

tlie definite article, or by a demonstrative or possessive pronoun,

or personal pronoun in the genitive, always with comparatives,

often with vocatives, instrumentals, and genitives, § 362.

(a.) For masculine present participles, see ^ 119.

109. Like blind decline adjectives ending in a long syllable,

participles present, weak participles past, superlatives, and adjec-

tive pronouns : fcest, fiist; </6d, good ; hdt, hot

; heard, hard;

hxbbende, haxiug (§ 119); gehdlgod, hallowed; hdtust, hotest;

mln, mine. See § 110, a.

110. With the endings of glsed decline adjectives with a final

short syllable and strong participles past: caJ/r/, blessed ; Jixden,

heathen; fscger, fair

; brocen, broken.

(a.) The -u of the feminine singular oftenest, and of the neuter plural

often, suffers precession to -0> -e>— , especially in derivatives. It drops

pretty regularly after a long syllable (^ 109; 91, J). A few once w-stems

iiold it: heard, heardu^ hcardc (Gothic hardus), hard.

111. {Shifting, §§ 73,41).— Like glccd decline short monosyllables

with root a> 93; bwr, hare; J/a?c, black ; hnsd, ready; hpiet, whetted; Ixt,

late ; si7ixl, small ; spser, spare ; pwr, wary.

(a.) The shifting is stopped by a following vowel, even by e which is

from a, and c<Cd. The nouns (dirges) have shifted further; the ad-

jective has throughout held stronger than the noun by the old forms.

112. {Gemination, § T8).—Rule 10, § 20, for simplification of gemi-

nation applies: grim, grimmes, grimre, grimmum, grimne, etc., grim.

113. {Synco2)e, §§ 46, 79).—

Polysyllables in -xg, -ol (ul, el), -en, -or

(cr), and others liable to syncope, may drop the last vowel of the theme

when the ending begins with a vowel: ffeger, ia\r, fxgru, hut fcegerne ;

hdlig, holy, hdhgcs^hdlges, hdligan'^ hdlgan, etc,

114. (Stems in -ia, § 83).—Some adjectives once in -ia have c<^«

in the cases usually without endings : blktc, blithe; gen. llutcs, bJidre,hl"ides,

etc. ; rarely before the endings: ecc, eternal, eccum, ecum. So decline ad-

jectives in -e and present participles (^ 119).

(fit.) Some show i-umlaut when compared with other words : grcnc

(0. 11. German griwni), green; scfte (soff), soft; strenge (strong)

strong. ^ 32, 2.

(b.) Some show compensative gemination: middc <^mid (Gothic

midis, midjia), middle. ^ 37, 2.

PARTICIPLES.—NORTIIUiMBKIAN ADJECTIVE DECLEXSIOX. 61

115. {^Themes in -1).—Such may have dissimilation into jg before the

case-endings : fr'i, free, gen. friges, frigre, etc. The g is the parting of the

organs after taking the i-position. § 85, a.

lie. (^Themes in -eo).—Such may drop the vowel of case-endings:

frco, free, gen. freos,freore,freds, etc. §80.

117. {Themes in ^> -u > -O, § 81; 91, B).

—Such may drop 7?

final after a vowel : blaa, blue, gen. bhvpes. After a consonantp final shifts

to u^ o ; and before a vowel may suffer quasi-gemination to iip : fealu,

i'a]\Q\Y,feahipe, etc. (§ 27, 5). This z(, may suffer precession to O > e ; fca-

lope,fealepe, etc. § 38.

118. Themes in -h, § 80).—Such may drop h final or before a close

ending, and before a vowel change it to g, or drop it and contract: hedh, hea

(Gothic hduhs, O. II. German hoh), high.

SiSGCLAn.—Nom. hea(li) iica(h) liea(h)

Gen. hea(gc)s heiirc hea,(gc)s

Dat. hea(g)un) licarc heii(g)nni

Ace. heane licu(gc) hea(h)

T'oc. liea(h) lica(h) hea(h)

Insl. hca(ge) hcarc hca(ge)

Plural.—Xom. hca(ge) hci'i(ge) hca(gu)Gen. hcava heavfi hcara

I)at. licri(g)am hea(g)um hea(g)umAce. hea(ge) hea(ge) hea(gu)Voc. lieag(e) hefi(ge.) liea(gu)

Inst. hea(g)um hea.(g)imi hca(g)um

The spelling of such words is irregular in the manuscripts. Sing. nom.

heh, accusative hcdhne, hcdnne, plur. dat. hcdhum, are found.

119. PARTICirLES.

The p.articiples have both declensions! §§ 103, 109, 110.

(a.) Present participles in the strong forms without endings have -e like

jfl-stems (§ 114): gtfende, giving.

(&.) Masculine present participles used substantively may take strong

forms after the definite article : pd Iktende or Udcnd, those sailing ; l)drd

ymb-sittendrd, of those dwelling around. {^ 100,/.)

(c.) The strong singular accusative of the participles is often (wrongly)

spelt without -n : gccorcne<Cigccoren-nc, chosen; scridend-{n)e, coming.

120. The declined infinitive (gerund) is often found in the da-

tive : to faranne., to fare.

121. NOKTIIUMBEIAN AdJECTIVE DeCLENSION^.

The strong declension is like Common Anglo-Saxon. The instrumental

in -« is very rare— the dative takes its place. The plural nominative is

often in -o, perhaps an older form than -e; compare Old Saxon -a and pre-

cession, § 38 ; perhaps merely an irregular conformation with weak forms.

The weak declension drops ->?, and is otherwise like that of the weak sub-

stantive (p. 51).

62 ADJECTIVES.—COMPARISON.

122. Comparison.

Comparison is a variation to denote clegvees of quantity or

quality. It belongs to adjectives and adverb?.

(a.) In Anglo-Saxon it is a variation of stem, and is a matter rather of

derivation than inllection ;but the common mode of treatment is convenient.

(5.) The suffixes of comparison were once less definite in meaning than

now, and were used to form many numerals, pronouns, adverbs> preposi-

tions, and substantives, in which compared correlative terms are implied :

either, other, ove?; uncle?; first, etc.

fc.) Anglo-Saxon adverbs are in brackets : (sjMe).

123. Adjectives are regularly compared by suffixing to tbc

theme of the positive -ir'^-er or -or for the theme of the com-

p)arative, and -ist > -est or -6st for the theme of the suj^erlative.

The ComjKirative has always weak endings and syncopatedstem.

The Sv2)erlaUve has both weak and strong endings.Adverbs are compared like adjectives: the positive uses the

ending -e, the comparative and superlative have none;-ir drops.

Strong, spid, stremcous ; spidra ; spidust.

'Weah, se spidal; se spidra; se spidosta.

Adverb, (spide) ; (spidor) ; (spidost).

(a.) These suffixes in the Parent Speech were comparative -jans, superla-

tive -jans-ta> ista, combinations of emphatic dental radicles (^ 56 ; 12G, a) :

Theme

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gotliic. <>. Saxon. O. Norse.

r mah, ntyy/iu, mag>mri, mak>nia, niik>me, mik>mei,

\great. fjrcat. (jreat. t/reat. f/reat. (jreat.

Compar. mah-i-jas f.iti-Z,ov {-]0\\) nia-jor, -jus ma-iz-a me-r-o mei-r-i

Superl. mah-is'tha fiiy-KXTO-v (see § 126, i) ma-ist-s me-st mei-st-r

The 0. H. German has me-ro, me-ist-cr, Anglo-Saxon ma-r-a, miH-st.

(b.) In Anglo-Saxon ir<^jans, tlie «<J, r<Cs are shifting (^ A\,2,b)\

dropping of an, apocope from gravitation (^^ 44, 38). 6 in -or and -ost is

compensative progression from an {^^ 37, 38) ; the same form is in Gothic,

Old Saxon, Old H. German. Old Norse has a for 6. A further precession

took place in -ir, -or, -ist, -ost, of 2>e>— ,and of o>a>a>w>e>—

(J^ 38). In Gothic, s has not shifted; so pyrsa, worse

(J^ 129).

(c.) The superlative -ta is suffixed to the theme of the positive in nu-

merals: Sanskrit s'as'-thd, sixth; Greek wpw-ro, first; Latin ^war-^o, fourth ;

Gothic ahtu-da-n, eighth; Anglo-Saxon prid-da, third. § 139.

124. {Umlaut, % o2, 2).—The affixes -iry-cr and -ist y -est

ADJECTIVES.—RELICS. 63

may work i-umlaut, changing

a, a, ea, cu, eo > o, u, ii, 11,

to e, it', y>e, y, y, c, y, y:

lanff, long ; lengra (leng) ; lengest.

Strang, strenge (§ 114, a), strong; straigra; strengest.

eald, aid (§ 33), old; yldra, eldra ; yldest, eldest.

hed\ hed, hCh, high (§§ 118, 25); h^rra, hyhra, Mrra, hedh-

ra; h^list, hehst, hedhst, hedhest, hedgost, and as nedh.

nedh, neh, nigh (§§ 118, 25); oi^ra (n(/r), nera {nedr), nedrra

{nior); nyst (^>i>ze), nelist, nedhst, and as hedh.

feor, (feor), (fyr), far; fyrra; fyrrest.

geong, young; gyngra {y>i); gyngest {yyi).sceort, short

; scyrtra / scyrtest.

(softe) sefte, soft (114, a) ; seftra {se/t) ; seftest. [125, 129.

edde (j/, e), easy; pdra (ea), {f/d{ed, e)) ; yr/es^, edddst. See §§

125. {Shifting, § 110).—Eoot «>t'E of short monosyllables

shifts to cB unless the next syllable begins with a vowel;such

words may also have forms Avith i-umlaut (§ 124) :

glaed, glad ; glwdra, gledra ; gladdst.

hi'sed, Tea.dy ; hrscdra, hredra ; hradost.

hpcet, whetted, keen; hpsetra; hpatost.

'

pcei', wary ; pxrra; parost.

126. Relics are found of forms from Parent Speech Compar-ative -ra, -ta-ra, Superlative -ma, -ta-ma. Of the comparative,

only pronouns, adverbs > prepositions, and the like : 6-de7\ other;

hpveder, whether; ve-r, ere; vef-ter, after; hi-der, hither; of-er,

over; iin-der, under. Of the superlative : for-ma, first

;hin-

dema, hindmost ; inn-ema, inmost; Isst-ema, latest

; rned-ema,

midmost; ?ieV^-ema, nethermost; sid-ema,\atest; tt^ema, utmost;

and others with double comparison. §§ 127, 129.

(a.) Parent Speech -tara. Forms on an, that, and lea, what, English

other, whether:

Sanskrit. Crock. Latin. Gothic. O. Snxon. Anglo-Paxon. O. Norse,

an-tara t-rfpo(c) al-teru(s) an-l>ar(a-) ^-itar 6-cter ann-ar

ka-tara Ko-r£po(c) u-teru(s) hva-})ar(a-) huc-dcr hpaj-cter hva-rr

The O. H. German has andera, other; hwedar, whether. This is a com-

mon form for the adjective in Sanskrit, the most common in Greek;in

Latin and Teutonic only as in Anglo-Saxon. Latin, in-tcr, between;

dex-tcr, right ; sims-tcr, left. ^ 122, h.

64 ADJECTIVES.—DOUBLE COMrARISON.—IIETEllOCLITES.

(i.) Parent Speech -ma, -ta-ma. Forms on pra, fore; scp, seven;

hin, hind :

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin- Gothic. O. Saxon. Ang.-Sax. O. Nor.

in-a-tha-mii 7rpJ-j[(o(t) pri-mu(s) frii-ma for-mo^ ^^^,^^ ^

f"""-

sap-ta-ma f/3-co-//o(c) scp-tu-mu(s) hin-du-ma hin-de-ma

The 0. H. German has/rwrni, first. This is a common form in Sanskrit;

in Latin, suffixed to Comparative jmis^is (^ 123, o), it makes the regu-

lar -issimo <iis-timo by assimilation {^ 35). After I and r it is suffixed

to the theme and assimilated : facil-limo, easiest; pulcher-rimo, hand-

somest. In the other languages it is found only as in Anglo-Saxon. For

numerals, see ^ 140.

127. Double Compaeison is found chiefly -svitli relics in -der,

-er, and -771 (§ 126) : &-r, ere, w-r-er, -or, io-r-est; aef-ter, ssfter-ra

yccftera, ccf-ter-mest (Rask), vcf-tem-est; Iws, less, lazs-sa, Ices-

dst, -est; for-ma, fi/r-m-cst, and see § 129.

(a.) Accumulation of signs of comparison is a striking fact through all the

languages. (I.) Repetition of the suffix for emphasis: -raroc < to-tu, reg-

ular Greek superlative ; Irish ma-ma ; O. H. German bezeroro, more better

(Shakespeare); crercra, more sooner, etc.; Parent Speech ta-ma (^ 126, b).

(3.) New suffix after Relics (^ 126): Gothic af-tu-m-is-ta ; Anglo-Saxon

ipf-te-m-es-t ; u.itermost= af-\-ta'\-ra-{-7na-\-jans-\-ta,a heaping of radicles

which illustrates their force as signs of comparison (^ 123, a). Emphatic

double comparison abounds in early English : Shakespeare has more braver,

more fairer, most best, most boldest, most unkmdcst, etc.

(b.) The English superlative ending -most in aftermost, and the like, is

simulation of a connection with most. ^ 42, 2.

128. Heteroclitic forms abound from themes in -ir and -6r,-ist,

-6st: sU, good; -ra, -la, {set) ;

—est, -ost ; rice, rich; ricest, rtcost ;

(jlwd, ghad ; glxdra, gleclra, etc. (§ 125). Some have themes Avitli

and without double comparison: Iset, late; Itetra; latost, late-

onest; sat, late; sidra {sid, sidor) ; sut-dst, -est, -mest.

129. Defective are the following. Words in capitals arc not

found.

(1.) 3Iixcd Roots :

Positive. Comparative. Superlative.

( o-(jd ) . j betera,betra,§ 124 betst,bet6st,-ast•'^'^^^'

] BAT \^P'^^

1 ba^ttra, § 125 (bet) (bctst)

[ yfel )(yfele) ( pyrsa, (pyrs), j pyrst, pyrresta,

had, ]pcor [ ]§123,5 ( (pyrst), (pyrrest)

( sum- ) ( sa^mra, § 124 sajmest

DEFECTIVE ADJECTIVES.—DECAY OF ENDINGS. 65

Positive. Compaeative. Supeklative.

Great (™^^^^

)(""'^^^^

(ma ; ( mara, (ma) m&st,§ 124; 123,0!much^

little, [^^^""^ (^^'0 i

( L^s (Goth, /asifi-) Ifessa (l3es),§ 35,^ ( Ises-ast, -est, -t

(2.) From Adverbs of time and jilace (compare §§ 126, 127)

ever,

ere, erst,

after-

icard,

else,

fore,

far,

a-, 32- (^r)>^rra, )

(c^i--6r, -ur) )

I"(cef-ter) > ajftera

]

(ellor), elra

forepeard, (fore) fyrra

feor, (fyr) fyrre, (fyr)

af-, £ef-=of,

oefterpeard

(elles)

ser-est

sef-tera-est

sefter-mest, § 127

hehind,\)^^f^^'''''^^\ (hindor)( (hmdan)

*^ '

forth, ford:peard, (ford) (furd-or, -ur)

)

[

inner, innepeard, (in) inncra

. ,( middepeard, )

*^''^'] (mid) )

north \ ^lordepcard, }_

''^'^^^''] (nord) S

for-ma > (fyrmest),

fyrst, fruma, § 5 1

fyrrest (eo>y)

urd-um),ford-m-est

((fu

] for

j lunduma,(bii

nether.uidepeard,

(nide)

tipper, Hfepeard, (up)

(nord-ur)

nid-ra,

binde-ma, § 126, Z»

inne-ma, (-m-est)

med-ema (-uma?)mid-m-est

uord-m-est

( nidema, § 126

(nid-6r,-er (i>eo) (nide-m-est (i>eo)

j ufera,

] (ufor)

yf(e)-m-est, § 124

outer, iltepcard, (ut)

So sUdemest, edstemest, pestemest, south-, east-, west-most

/ ^,> /»** \ litema, lltmest,utra, (uttor,utor) ^ ^ , ^ „'^ ' M Yt-(e-)m-est,§124

Decay of ENniNcs.— ( 1 ), Declension : Layamon, strong, sing. masc.

—, -es, -en, -ne ; fern. —

, -re, -re, -c ; neut. —, -es, -en,

—; plur. -c, -re,

-en, -e; but n, s, r may drop. Weak, -e, -en, as in ^ 102.—Ormulum,

strong, sing.—

, plur. -e. Wealc, -c.— Chaucer, monosyllables as in Orm.,

others undeclined.— Shakespeare, no declension.

(2), Comparison: Layamon, Ormulum, -re, -est.—Chaucer (=:Modern

English), -er, -est.

E

66 PRONOUNS.

V. PRONOUNS {Relational Names, § 56).

130. Personal Pronouns {Relational Substantives).

Sing.—l.Z

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 67

(c.) The mode of growth from the radicles in the Indo-European family

may be studied in the following :

Sing.—

68 TRONOUNS.—REFLEXIVES.

Latin.Dpax.—

PRONOUNS.—DEMONSTRATIVES. 69

mine, thine, his, our, your,

Sanskrit, madija tvadi'ja svadija asmadi'ja jus'madi'ja

of us two, 0/you two,

Greek....

70 PRONOUNS.—RELATIVES.—INTERROGATIVES.

(i.) For forms in other languages and discussion of case-endings, see

^ 104. Ilcyne gives /wra, pxm only as masculine, but pjbrd bocd, JEl-

fric, 2, 114; pxrd Jnngd, ib. 2, 130 ; see J)xm in Grein.

(3. pes.)—Other Forms: without gemination of 5 in masculine and neu-

ter, pises, pisiun, pise; i>y : pys, Pysscs, Jnjssc, etc. ; sing. nom. f. pios;

gen. and dat. f. pisere'^pisre, pisscrc ; dat. pisson, pissan, piosum ; inst. m.

and n. ^"'5) pise, pisse adjective form, (peos:=0. Saxon pius ; Grimm, Ett-

miiller, Heyne— examples given are all false readings); plur. nom. ^^s;

gen. piscrd, pisserd. Northumbrian: sing. nom. dirs, dius,dis ; gen. and

dat. f. dwsscr, disser ; dat. m. dassum; ace. diosnc, da, dis.

(a.) Pes is an emphatic demonstrative from pa-\-sja. In Gothic, the

same force is obtained by affixing -uh (Latin -ce, -que : hi-c, quis-que)'.

In the other Germanic tongues analogous forms to pes are found : O.

Saxon sing. nom. these, the-su (thius), thi-t ; gen. the-sas, the-sara,

the-sas ; dat. the-sumu, the-saru, thc-sumu; ace. the-san, the-sa, thi-t ;

inst. n, thius; pi. nom. ace. the-sa, thius ; gen. the-saro; dat. the-sun;

O. H. G. di-se-r, etc. The Anglo-Saxon has lost all the sja except -s in

the nominative. In pisse, pissd there has been syncope and assimila-

tion of r>s, as in usse, ussd( ^ 132) ; in pisses and pissum, gemination

of s through gravitation. The genitive and dative masculine are writ-

ten pretty regularly with gemination of s—not always.

(3.) Ylc.) pylc-t spylc : ylca, same, has only weak forms; pylc,

spylc, such, have only strong. (i/=i=ze.) ])7js-licypyllic, strong.

(a.) Ylc<C'>J-\-lic ; ?/<C«, demonstrative Ae; -Zzc, like; so /ly-Z/c, analogous

to Latin td-lis, Greek ttj-XIkoq, Sanskrit td-dr'ks'a; spy-lie, Gothic sve-

leiks, etc., English such.

(4.) Self., see § 131. (5.) Same, adv. same, Sanskrit pron. sama

{sa-{'ma), Greek o^o-c, Latin simi-lis, Gothic, Old Saxon satna,

Old Norse scim-r. Old II. German samo.

(6.) Geotid, adv. yon, Gothic ^ron. Jains, that (§ 255, a).

134. Relatives,— (1.) se, sco, pwt, who, which, that, is de-

clined as when a demonstrative (§ 133). (2.) pe used in all the

cases, both alone and in combination with se, seo, pset, or a per-

sonal pronoun, is indeclinable. (3.) spd, so, used like English as

and Old German so in place of a relative, is indeclinable.

135. Interrogatives are Jipd, who; hpxder, yfhich. of two;

hpylc, Ivdllc, of what kind. They have strong adjective endings ;

hpseder is syncopated (§ 84.)

PRONOUNS.—INDEFINITES. 7I

oING. Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fern. Keut.

Nbni. hpii bpast jSansJcrit. ka-s kti ka-t

Ge7i. hpa33 hpres Greek... Ko-£>Troe>'7r6-Srt,Trov,etc.

Dat. hpam lipam Latin . . . qui-s qujB quo-dAce. hpone lipajt Gothic . . bva-s hvo hva

Yoc. ' O.Saxon hue hua-t

Inst, hpam hpy 0. Norse, hva-r hva-t

Other Forms : dat. hpasm, hpan, hpon, hpam, hp&m ; ace. Iipwne ; inst.

hp'i, hpig, hu. Northumbrian : hud, hux, husstd, huxd.

(a.) For shifting of the stem radicle, see § 41, i?; for case-endings, ^ 105.

(6.) Hpwder<ihpa, comparative form, ^ 126, a. Hpylc <ihpy -\- lie like

pylc<ipy-\-ric,^ \ZZ,^,a. (y=:i=ze.) 0. Fries, hwa—hwet.

136. Indefinites.

(1.) The Indefinite Article Is 'Clin, one.

Sing.—

72 DECAY OF PRONOMINAL ENDINGS.

(b.) From hpxder (^ 135,5): d-hpxder (any one) '^aj'ifer'^ actor, opdcr,

()(/er, other, either ; nd-h]>xder{ae\t\\ev')^napder,n6pdcr, noder ; ge-hpxdcr,

either ; wg-hpxder {d-\-ge-\-hpxdcry^a:gder, either ; spd-hpxder-spa, which-

soever.

(c.) From Vic (J^ 133, 3, a) : gc-hpilc, -hpclc, -hpylc, any body ; xg-hpilc

{d-\-ge-\-hpi)-\-lic, § 135, b), whoever ; hpilc-hugu, hpilce-hugu, any one, any-

thing ; spd-hpdc-spd, whosoever, Jri/s-lic, Jjus-lic,Jji/llic,J)y-ltc, of this sort;

xlc (d-{-ge-\-lic), each, all : xlc, clc, ylc.

(d.) Analogous compounds arc found throughout the Teutonic tongues,

and to many through most of the Indo-European family. /

137. Decay of Pronominal Endings:—(a.) Personal.— Layamon and Ormulum have Anglo-Saxon forms, also

Lay. ?c>ic/j>Orm. i, Chaucer sometimes ich, ik. Pu>thou,late Old En-

glish (§ 38, il, 1) ; g-e>Lay. :5e>ye ; eo/>>Lay. :jOM>you. Hv^,he6,hit:

sing. fem. nom., Ang.-Sax. chronicle (A.D. 1140+) 5caJ> Chaucer schc"^

she, Northern O. Engl. scM (0. Sax. sid, O. Norse sm), Lay. :jeo, :je,Orm.

"^ho ; hit^Oim. itt, itj dat.>acc. Lay. Jmii, hire^ Chancer hire (monosyl-

lable) > her ; plur. nom. ace. Lay. ]jc6, paie, Orm. nom.pci^-i^> they ; gen.

Lay. heore, hire, Orm.pc^-^re (heorc), dat. >acc. Orm.

pe'^-^m (hemm)'^them (^ 130, e) ; her, hir, here (their), hem (them), are still in Chaucer.

(b.) Posscssives.—Lay. mm^wu>my, 7;m>/j>thy, sometimes before

a consonapt; other endings like adjectives, § 129 +.(c.) Demonstratives.—The definite article in Layamon retains its declen-

sion, except dat. nC^n and precession of a>a>o>e; but indeclinable pe

grows more frequent, and in Orm. is estabhshed as in Modern English. Pes

changes like the adjective (t^ 129+) : plur. ^as ^T'coi> those (^ 38, A, 1).

Ormulum sing, piss (this), plur. pisse (these) ;and sing, patt (that), plur. pa

(those). Chaucer this, plur. these; that, plur. tho.

(d.) Relatives.— Layamon pje, p)at throughout, also fem. and plur. Pju>peo; Ormulum Jjatt (=that) throughout, as in English now. For the changeof who, which to relatives, see Syntax.

(e.) Interrogatives.—Layamon ivhd (^w6),whes, wham C^wdm'),ivhdn

(^wdn), neuter lohxt; Ormulum luhd, ivhds, dat.^acc. whamm, whatt ;

O. Engl. d> 6. Hpilc, hpxder, like adjectives, ^ 129+.

(y.) Indefinite an in Layamon is declined throughout, sometimes also

nom. dn^d, and oblique cases one. Ormulum has only masculine endings;

d, a, frequent. Chaucer no inflection, dn^a, as now.

NUMERALS. 73

Cardinals.

138. NUMERALSOemulum.

1. an an

2 Jtpegen, tpa, tu )

^^^..

'1 <tpa3, ]Dri, J)re6

4. feoper5. fif

6, six

i

Ordinals. Symbols.

f forma (fruma, ^resta) | j

tfyrsta, §129 j

Oder

Jiriclda

feopercta (feurda)fifta

sixta

\n-eo, ])rc

fowweri"

fif

sexe

7. seofon (syfone)j

, J .

'

|

seofoda (-eda)

8. ealita ehhto

9. nigon (-en) ni^benu10. tyn, ten tene,(tenn)

11. endleofan (ellefnc)

ealitoda (-eda)

nigoda (-eda)

teoda

ir.

HI.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

Ylll.

IX.

X.

12. tpelf

13. ]3re6t5''iie

14. feopertj'ue

15. fiftyne

IG. sixtj^ne

17. seofontj'nc

18. eahtat^-ne

19. nigontj'ne20. tpentig

21. an and tpentig

30. l^ritig, iDi-ittig

40. feopertig

50. fiftig

GO. sixtig

70. hundseofontig

80. hundeahtatig

90. hundnigontig

twellf

Jirittene

sextcue

twennti^

l^ritti:^

endleofta (eo>u, y, e) XLtpelfta XII.

J)reuteoda XIII.

feoperteuda XIV.fifteoda XV.sixteoda XVI.seofonteoda XVII.

eahtateoda XVIIl.

nigonteoda XIX.

tpentiguda XX.

J un and tpentigoda | vvtI tpentigoda and forma.

l^i'itigoda

fowwerrti^ feopertigoda

fifFti^ fiftigoda

sexti^ sixtigoda

scofennti^ liundseofontigodia

hundealitatigoda

hundnigontigoda.

100fhundteontig ~|

Ihund Jliunndredd

101. hund and an

Imndteontigoda

an and Imndteonti-

godahundteontigoda and

forma

XXX.XL.L.

LX.LXX.LXXX.XC.

C.

CL

74 ETYiMOLOGY OF CARDINALS.

ETYxMOLOGY OF CARDINALS. 75

(a.) The numerals are clusters of radicles, some of which lure beyond the

Zndo-European family.

1-10. — An (one) <^ pronominal stem z ]> ai-na'^ Sansk. ena, that; e'ka

(e-(na)ka)1 § 130, b,c. Dva (two), dental radicle for addition, § 56. Tri,

tar, fem. tissar (titar), three< dental radicle ^+ emphatic r; compare its

force in comparison, ^ 123, c, and in \/iri, to go further. Katvar, fem. kata-

sar {ka-tatar), four, =:A-a {<Ceka, one) -^tpar (<^tar, titar, three) : the sym-bols for four are composed of those for one and three in Sanskrit and kin-

dred alphabets, also in Egyptian. Kan-kan (five) is a reduplication indi-

cating the completion of one {ka<^eka) count— one hand. For reduplica-

tion as a sign of completion, see Greek Grammars : Crosby, ^ 179 ; see fur-

ther below. Aktan (eight) is ak (one) -{-superlative -ta (^ 123, c), the highest

count of fingers. Navan (nine) is akin to Sansk. nava-s, Greek vi[o-Q, Latin

novu-s, Gothic niu-ji-s, Ang.-Sax. 7iipe, new, now, <^nu, pronominal stem of

interrogation, negation, stimulation ; nine begins a new quaternion. Dakan

(ten) < dva-kan= 2X5.

(b.) Well-marked identity with the Semitic numerals has been claimed in

eka, Hebrew ek'ad ; s'as', Hebrew s'es', six; saptan, Gothic sibun, He-

brew s'eba, seven. It has been said that s'es'=^s'e-{-s'e:^2-\-2, and s'eba^=

5'e+(ar)6fl=3-|-4 ; the -tan in saptan being a superlative, as in aktan, fin-

ishing the count of possibly a week. Kan in kan-kan is also like Hebrew

kam-es , five. The original stem for five has been also thought to be pan-

kan, and to be from Sanskrit ^anz, hand.

(c.) The shifting and gravitation in coming down from the Parent Speechis generally regular, ^^ 41,38, tables in ^^ 18,19 ; Z;>^:>>y, ^ A\,Z,A,B;

i'^ig, quasi-gemination, ^ 27, 5.

{d.) 11-19.— Endleofan < a/i -j- leofan < tihan (Lithuanic, lika), ten;

^>e, precession, § 38 ; nl'^ndl, dissimilated gemination of n, the last part

of which changes to cl from the dropping of the nasal veil to send breath for-

ward for I (^ 27, 5 ; 50) ; t(<C.d)'^l, unusual shifting : 'Ocvcrcytuc^ Ulysses;

dingua^lingua (^ 41, b) ; h{<^k)'^f, shifting as in katvar^Jidvor, four ;

kankan'^finf, five, etc., § 41, 3, A, J5; i^- eo, breaking, ^ 33; 35, 2, a.

TpELF < tpd+ leofan= 2 -+- 10 ; threo-tyne, 3+ 10, etc., are plain.

(e.) 20-120.—TDENTiG<//jfiTen (twain)-f-/(§-<t?a^-a?i(ten), 2X 10: shift-

ing, § 41,3, A. Similar are the forms in -tig up to {hund)lpelftigz^l'iX 10,

the great hundred.

60-120.—With the forms in -tig from three-score to the great hundred is

joined hund. Gothic tchund (Latin -ginti, Greek -kovti, Sanskrit -rati^ <C

dakanta <idakan (ten) -\- -ta superlative, as in saptan, aktan : shifting, ^41,

3, A ; nt^nd, instead of nd, through influence of n ; «>e, progression to

d and shifting, ^ 18 ; a~^u, precession, ^ 38. The Gothic has sibun-tehund

= 7X 10, taihun-tchiind= 10 X 10, etc. The Anglo-Saxon form was once

hund-seofonta (decade seventh), like Old Saxon (h)ant-sibunta. The -ta

changed to -tig through conformation with the smaller numbers, and hund-,

whose meaning had faded, was retained as a sign of the second half of the

76 DECLENSION OF NUMERALS.

great huiulrcd;when countincr by the common hundred, it is omitted : an

hund manna and scofontig, 170 men.

C/.) 100-1000.—Hl'nd, /jM?i(/rcc?< Parent Speech dakan-dakanta,-w\\ic\\

would shift in Anglo-Saxon to tihun-tihund (§ 41). It has gravitated to

hund^ hundred <ihundarc (Latin ccnturia) -\- d, as in eored, legion ; coped,

herd, etc. 1000 is expressed by so dilTerent words in the different tongues

that no common origin can be found, and hence it is believed not to have

been in the Parent Speech. The Lithuanic, Slavonic, and Teutonic, how-

ever, agree: hith. tukstanti; Shv. tusa7itja; Goi\\. p{isundi<^tuk-<^dakan

(ten) -\- santi <^kanti^ hund (hundred) = 10X 100.

140. Ordinals arc superlative forms, except oder^ second.

(a.) Fruima, /orma, first, sec ^ 126 +; odcr, second, ^ 126, a; -da, -la,

-da are all shiftings of superlative -ta, § 123, c; -tebda is a repetition of

te6da<i.tednda (tenth) ; -tigoda, Ynesic -tigosta, O. Norse -tugasti, O. HGerman -zugosto (no examples in Gothic or Old Saxon), has conformed to

the smaller and more frequently recurring numbers in -tedda. The substan-

tives hund and Jmsend had not developed ordinals in Anglo-Saxon.

{b.) The formation of ordinals is similar in principle throughout the Indo-

European family. j

Declension.

141. Cardinals.— 1, dn, is declined, § 13G.

N.^A.^V. 2, tpegen tpa tu<tpa 3, lKt(-y,-ie) ]3re6 J)re6 (-ia, -io)

Gen tpegra, tpcgu, J)re6ra

D.^Inst.. tpam>tpieni ]3riin (-ym)

Like tpegen decline begen, bd, btc, both.

4-19.— Cardinals from feoper to fpelf, and ivom. preo-tyne to

nigon-tpne, are used as indeclinable, but are also declined like i-

stem nouns of the First Declension {byre^ § 84), oftenest whenused as substantives: nom. ace. voc. /eopere, gen. Reopen?, dat.

in^t.feoperum. Such forms oi ealita are not found. Tpie<^te6n,

umlaut, § 32, 2.

{a.) Those in -tyne have also sometimes a neut. nom. and ace. in -w]>-o,

or -a: fiflyn-u, -o, -a (fifteen) ; preoteno (^thirteen). (^!>*>C.){b.) They are quasi-adjectives like Dene, ^ 80.

20-120.—Forms in -tig are declined as singular neuter nouns:

prltlg (thirty), geu. prUiges / or, as adjectives, have plural gen.

-rd, dat. -um : prttigrd, pritigum.100-1000.—Ilmid, n., is declined likepon?, § 73; hundred siu(\

p'dsend, like scip, § 70; \>\.pilsend-u, -o, -e, -a (Psa. Ixvii, 17), § 393.

THE VERB. 77

142. Ordinals have always the regular weak forms of the ad-

jective, except oder (second), always strong. Indefinites, § 130, 2,

143. MuLTiPLiCATivES are found in -feald (fold) : dnfeald, simple : tpi-

feald, two-fold; /w5en(f-7n«ZMOT,thousandfoldly.

1 44. Distributives may be expressed by repeating cardinals, or by a

dative : seofon and seofon, seven by seven ; bi tpdtn, by twos.

145. In answer to how often, numeral adverbs are used, or an ordinal or

cardinal with sid (time) : xne, once ; tp^pa {tpiga), twice ; pripa {piga),thrice ; priddan side, the third time ; feoper sidum, four times.

146. For adverbs of division the cardinals are used, or ordinals with d&l :

on preo, in three (parts) ; seofedan diil, seventh part.

147. An ordinal before hcalf(ha,\i) numbers the whole of which the half

is counted : he pxs pa tpd gear and Imdde healf, he was there two yearsand (the) tliird (year) half=2i years. The whole numbers are usually un-

derstood : he ricsode mgonteode heaJf gear, he reigned half the nineteenth

year= 18i years. A similar idiom is used in German and Scandinavian.

148. Sum, agreeing with a numeral, is indefinite, as in English: sumeten gear, some ten years, more or less ; limited by the genitive of a cardinal

it is a partitive of eminence : code cahta sum, he went one of eights: with

seven attendants or companions.

VERB.

149. The notion signified by a verb root may be predicated of

a subject or uttered as an interjection of command, or (2) it maybe spoken of as a substantive fact or as descriptive of some per-

son or thing. In tlie first case proper verb stems are formed, or

auxiliaries used, to denote time, mode, and voice;and sufiixes (per-

sonal endings) are used to indicate the person and number of the

subject: thus is made up the verb proper or finite verb. In the

second case a noun stem is formed, and declined in cases as a sub-

stantive or adjective.

150. Two Voices.—The active represents the subject as act-

ing, the passive as aifected by the action. The active has inflec-

tion endings for many forms, the passive only for a participle.

Other passive forms help this participle with the auxiliary verbs

com (am), beon^ pesan, peordan.

(w.) The middle voice represents the subject as affected by its own action.

It is expressed in Anglo-Saxon by adding pronouns, and needs no paradigms.

151. Six Modes.—The indicative states or asks about a fact,

the subjunctive a possibility ;the inqjerative commands or in-

78 VERB.—CONJUGATION.—CLASSES.

treats;the infinitives (and gerunds) are substantives, the parti-

ciples adjectives. Certain forms of possibility arc expressed by

auxiliary modal verbs with the inlinitive. They need separate

discussion, and arc conveniently called a potential mode.

152. Five Tenses.—Present^ hniyerfeet^future ., perfect^ p>luper'-

fect. Tlie present and iraper'fect have tense stems;the future is

expressed by the present, or- by aid of sceal (shall) or pille (will) ;

the perfect by aid of the present of hahban (have) or, with some

intransitives, heon (be), pesan or peorctan (be) ;the pluperTect

by aid of the imper'fect of hahban, heon, pesan, or peordan.153. Two Numbers, singular and plural.

154. TiiEEE Persoxs, ^>s^, second, and third.

155. Stems and Themes.—A icwsQ-stem is that part of a verb

to which the signs of mode, person, and number were added in

that tense. The xcrh-stem is that to which the tense signs were

added. The theme of any part of a verb is so much of it as is un-

changed in the inflection. For roots, § 57.

150. The Principal Parts are the present infinitive, the im-

perfect indicative first persons, and the passive participle.

157. Conjugation.—Verbs are classified for conjugation bythe stems of the imperfect tense.

Strong Verbs express tense by varying the root vowel;weak

verbs, by composition. Strong verbs in the imperfect indicative

singular first person have the root vowel unchanged, or changed

\}j progression or by contraction. The vowels are

Xo change.

GROWTH OF ABLAUT. 79

(a.) The variation of letters in the five first classes is called Ablaut; it

sprang from gravitation (^ 38) and compensation (^ 37). Its beginnings may-

be seen in the other Indo-European tongues, plainest in Sanskrit. Sanskrit

grammars have ten conjugation classes; the present stems are, 1. V+a;2.-/; 3. Reduplicated V; 4. V+i«; 5. V+»"; Q-V+a'; 7. V with n

inserted; 8.\/-\-u; 9.\/+ni; 10. V+cy'a. Anglo-Saxon strong verbs

correspond to the first or sixth class, a few to the fourth ;weak verbs to the

(4th 1) and tenth. Sanskrit reduplicated preterites (perfects) are formed all

alike from the root by prefixing its first letters.

Presents.

Sense. Root. Conj. Sanskrit. Greek.

throw. kar G. kir-vJnxi; tiT-a,'mi<.V tar, G, step over,

sit. sad C. sid-a'mi ("C-o/xai

Jcnow, go. k'it, i 1, 2. k'e't-ami, e -mi tl-jii

show. dio. G. dic-a'mi, Causal base de'9-aja iHK-vvj.11

bo'dh-ami irtvQ-onai

bhug'-a'mi, Caus. hose bho'g'-aja (pevy-iii

vaks'-ami

Latin. Gothic..

sed-eoj

i-re]

dic-o J tei

sit-an

teih-an

l:noic.

80 COMPARISON OF ABLAUT.—CONTRACTION.

(r.) In Sanskrit these vowel changes have no meaning, but arc mostlymechanical results of the accent: yet, as the place of the accent depends on

the weight of the prefixes and suffixes in which the meaning resides, the

vowel changes come to be signs of this meaning, and, as the prefixes and

suffixes decay, the sole signs of it. The vowels are the vehicles of emotion

and harmony ;to make them signs of relation fuses thought and feeling, and

gives power for oratory and poetry. The Teutonic races, like the Semitic,

found this fusion congenial, and in tlic earliest Gothic the ablaut is already a

fundamental law of the language. Physiology teaches that progression mayspring from accent, that precession may take place in unaccented syllables

of course, and in accented syllables from compensation or shifting : compar-ison of Anglo-Saxon and English proves these possibilities to be importantfacts in the history of language ;

the Sanskrit verb shows that they are the

facts from which sprang Ablaut. ^^ 37, 38, 41. The changes of the i-roots

and ti-roots are established in Sanskrit ; those of the a-roots are only occa-

sional in the present even in the sixth class, and that class is small. It

seems, then, that a-roots of the Sanskrit sixth class were drawn to ablaut byconformation with j-roots and ?<-roots, and that a-roots of the first class con-

formed after ablaut was fully established, except such as attained the Fourth

Teutonic Conjugation, where the whole perfect conforms in progression to

the singular 0<a.(/.) In Gothic, the present, the imperfect plural, and past participle have

the same precession or progression as in Sanskrit {^^ 18, 38). The imper-fect singular has a second progression in the second, third, and fourth conju-

gations, because it has gravitated to a monosyllable.

( "-.) The e of imperfect plural tcnimd is from ani, a compensative drop-

ping of n and lengthening of a, the result of which is modified by ^— a

process in which we may see how umlaut and contraction run into each

other.

{h.) Imperfect plural and past participle ?(<« is in liquid and double con-

sonant roots. The first consonant is almost always a liquid. The effort for

the two consonants takes the place of accent in part. For the assimilatingeffect of m, 71, 1, r, see ^ 35, 2. In Sanskrit, also, a goes to u in connec-

tion with r, m, n.

(j.) In Anglo-Saxon and the other Teutonic tongues the changes from

Gothic ablaut are explained by umlaut, breaking, and shifting. O. Fries., 38.

159. Contraction.—Roots incapable of progression kept the redupli-cation till after the accent had shifted to it

(>^ 41, 4) and it had taken pro-

gression (Gothic i<^di); and in Anglo-Saxon they had contracted the re-

duplication and root to a uniform eo or e.

(a.) Such roots are those in a-j-two consonants, and in vowels hav-

ing the second progression (^ 38). Add, also, a few in Gothic e, al,

perf. di-6 : let-an (let), Idi-lut ; lai-an (blame), Zai-/y. Hence Grimm's

Conjugation Classes from the vowels of the present and (im)perfect:

CONTEACTIOX.—COMPOSITION. 81

Pres. Pcrf. Pres. Perf. Pres. Perf. Pres. Pevf.

Gothic... (l)a+ , ai-a; (2) ai, ai-ai; (3) au-, ai-au ; (4) e, ai-e

;"j

O.Saxon {\) 0.+, ie>e; (2) e, ie>e; (3) 6, io>ie; (4) a, ie>e;/0. iVorse (1) a+, e; (2) ei, e; (3) an, io; (4) a, c;

0.^. G. (l)a+ , ia; (2) ei, ia; (3)ou>6, io; (4) a, ia;

Ang.Sax. (\) ii+, eO>o; (2) a, e6>e; (3) ea, e6>e; (4) cfe>e, e6<u ; j

Pres. Ferf. Pies. Perf. Pres. Perf.

Gothic... (5) ai, ai-6; (G) e, ai-6; (

—) 6, ai-6.

O.Saxon 6>uo, io>ic.

0. Norse 6, e.

O.H.G. uo, io.

Ang.Sax. a.+ p,ed+ p; ci;>t', eO>C'; 6, e6>0.

(i.) Traces of the process of contraction are found in O. H. German

and in the following Anglo-Saxon words :

Gothic ^aWare, hold, jiert. hdikald,-

O.ll.G. haltan, heialtyJiialfyhialt.

Gothic stdutan, strike, perf. stdistdut ; O.H.G. stuzan, steruz (r<,st)~;:>steoz, stioz.

Goihic hditan, call, T^&rt. hdihait ; A.-Sax. hdtan, hcht<,ha!hdt.

Gothic redan, rede, perf. rairoth ; A.Sax. rxdan, re6rd<!.rii;r6d.

Gothic letan, let, perf. /aiWi; A.-Sux. Ixtan, kort (r<il, ^ il, 3, A)<l!£-Gothic Idikan, leap, pertldildik; A.-Sax. Idcan, le6lc<laildc. [lot.

— A.-Sax. on-drsedan, on-dreord, dread.

The repeated consonants weaken, and finally fall out and let the vow-

els together. In the Anglo-Saxon relics the first root consonant is saved

by metathesis with the root vowel. These contractions at first gaverise to several different vowels and diphthongs found in O. H. German.

Conformation in analogy with ablaut has brought them to a uniform eo

or e in Ang.-Saxon. § 53. O. Fries, presents a, e,e, a, 6, e; perf. i, e.

160. Composition.— Derivatives form the imperfect by suffixing to

the verb stem de<Cdide, imperfect of don, do : h/fo-de ^=did love.

(<z.) This formation is common to, and peculiar to, the Teutonic

tongues. Two suffixes of derivation appear in Anglo-Saxon verb stems:

-^a>^e>^>e>— (Latin -t, Conj. IV.), and -o^(ci, w)>e (Lat-

in -a, Conj. I.), both from an original -aja, Sanskrit Class Tenth, Greek

pure verbs.

Gothic, nasjan, sa.vc; jiasi-da, ])\nr. nasi-dcdum: salbori, salve; salbo-da,

salho-dedum.

O. Sax., nerjan, save; neri-da, ncri-dun: scawd-n, see; scawo-da, scawo-

dun.

A, -Sax. neri'an, save; ncre-dc,ncrc-don; seal/ian,sa.\\e; scalf6-de,-don.

O. Fries, nera, save; ner{e)-de, ner{e)-don ; salvja, salve ; salva-de, -don.

O.Norse telja, tell ; tal-da, tol-dum : kalla, call ; kalla-da, kollu-dum.

O.II.G. norjan, save; neri-ta, neri-tumes : salpon, salve; salp6-ta, salpo-tumes.

Gothic and 0. II. German have also a stem in -di, -c, corresponding

to the Latin Second Conjugation.

F

82 TENSE STEMS.—I'EliSONAL ENDINGS.

(i.) Derivatives in Sanskrit have only a periphrastic perfect, one

form of which has kar (do) as its auxiliary enclitic ;the Greek passive

first aorist is compoiinilcd with 0£=:dc{i^ 108); the Latin first, second,

and fourth conjugations compound with fiii (be)>-r/, -ni : amd-vi,

doc(e)ui, audl-vi.

161. Tense Stems.— The present stem suffixes a or ia to the root.

The imperfect is from the old perfect, which repeated (reduplicated) the

root. The Parent Speech liad also an aorist stem prefixing to the root a

demonstrative radicle called the augment, and an imperfect prefixing a sim-

ilar augment to the present stem. Other tense stems were formed by com-

position, as s. future with as (to be) or hhu (to be).

162. Mode Suffixes.—The indicative and imperative suffix the per-

sonal endings to the tense stem ;the subjunctive prolonged the stem to ex-

press doubt or hesitation by suffixing to it a for present contingency, id or i

for past contingency or desire (the optative mode). The Teutonic subjunc-

tives are from the optative.

163. Peksonal Endings are from the same radicles as the personal

pronouns. ^ 130.

SiKGULAE.

PERSONAL ENDINGS.—PRESENT TENSE. 83

165. Present tense, -y/nam; tense stem, noma. Sanskrit not yet iden-

tified with the others, though put with them by Pott, Benfey, Diefenbach;

Latin -emo in ad-imo, etc., also put here by Bopp, Diefenbach.

Singular.—

84 STRONG VERBS.—INDICATIVE.

Singular.

ic nam, I took,

J)ii name, tlioit tookcst.

he nam, he took.

ic sceal (pille) nima«.

J)li scealZ (pil^) nimaw.

ht sceal (pillf) mman.

Transitive Form.

Sing. I have tahen.

ic hceblbe numew.

J)<i hoefsi (haf(^sZ) iimnen.

he hoefc/ (haf(^(/) numew.

Plur.

pe habba^ numew.

ge habbac? numew.

hi habbaf^ numen.

Imperfect.

Plural.

pe numow, we took.

ge namow, 2/e ZooZ;.

hi namo?i, ^Aey ^oo^'.

Futm-e.

shall or tpt'ZZ fa^e.

pe BCvXon (pillac/) niman.

ge sculo^i (pillar?) nimaw.

hi sculopi (pillttrf) nima?i.

Perfect.

Intransitive Form.

/ have {am) come.

ic Qoni cumeji,

]^)tlear^ cume«.

he is cxxxnen.

pe si7id (sindon) cnmene.

ge Bind (sindon) cumene.

hi &ind (sindon) cwmene.

Pluper'fect.

Sing. I ^^^ taken.

ic haef(?e numen.

J)ti hxMest nume^z.

he haef(7e nume^i.

Plur.

pe hv&fdon nuvaen.

ge hviMon wxmen.

hi hdiidon numew.

/ had {was) come.

ic pa3s cumew.

]3tl p&re cumew.

he poes cumew..

pe p^row cumene.

ge ^sbron cwmene.

hi pjeroJi cumewe.

Other Forms : nam, nom ; namon, -an (d'^o) ; sceal, seel ; scul-on, 'un,

-an; sceol-on, -un, -an; pille, pile, pilt (i'^y); hwbbe, hebbe, habbe,

haf-a, -u, -0 ; hafest; hwfed; hsebbad; eom,eam; is, ys ; sind, sint,

sindan {i'^y, ie, eo), ear-on, -un. For com may be used peorde or

beom ; for pxs, peard (^ 178).

IMPERFECT INFLECTION, STRONG AND WEAK. 85

166. Perfect Stem na-nam^ Latin theme eni-im'^ em.

SiNGULAK.—Parent Speech. Sanskrit. Greek, Latin. Gothic. O. Saxon. O. Norse.

1. na-nam-(m)a na-nam-a ve-vsji-rjica em-i nam nam nam

!na-nan-tha,

"j

na-nim-i-tlia> > vt-vtfi-rjKag

nem-i-thd J

vi-vEji-rjKE em-it nam nam nam

em-(is)ti nam-< nam-i nam-?

3. na-nam-(t)a na-na'm-a

Plukal.—1. na-nam-masi nem-i-ma

2. na-nam-tasi nem-a

3. na-nam-anti nem-us

ve-vtu-ijKa/iev em-mius

ve-vtfi-i'iKaTi em-(is)tis

ve-vs]i-i]icd(jt

nem-wm nam-are mim-um

nanx-up nam-wre na,m-ud

em-(er)unt nt^m-im nam-ww nam-a

O. Fries, endings areO. H. Ger. nam, nam-i, nam ; ndm-umes, -ut, -un.

like Ang.-Saxon, nam^nom.A.-Sax. PLURALS have sometimes -um (§ 196), often -un, and see ^ 170, c.

(a.) The reduplication sets at work compensation (^ 37, 4), and all

the singular endings are lost except in the second person a vanishing-e <^ -i. O. Sax. and O. H. Ger. have -i <C Sanskrit -i-tha, and a stem

like the plural. Gothic and O. Norse have -t<^-tha and the singular

unchanged stem ; -t is found in some Anglo-Saxon preteritive verbs :

scealt, etc., ^ 167. Weak verbs in Gothic have -s<^-ih<C-t, like the

present, and it is found in Anglo-Saxon, oftenest in the new imperfectof preteritive verbs: cunnan, imp. cudes ; so ZcS^^e^, observedst

; brohtes,

broughtest; seaWe^, gavest, etc. (^ 168); and in Northumbrian; weakverbs generally strengthen the -s> -st like the present.

Plural.—m^n is shifting (41, b) ; the second person conforms with

the first and third. Sanskrit -i-, Gothic -u-, connecting vowel, inserted

for euphony ;-u- > -o-, precession, ^ 38.

167. Future.—Sceal is a preterito-present, § 212; pille is irregular in

the singular after the same analogy, ^ 40;niman is the infinitive. For the

history and use of these periphrastic forms, see Syntax.

168. Perfect and Pluperfect.—Hxhhe, imperf. hs'fde, is a weak

verb, ^ 183; eom, imperf. /'.'ps,is irregular, ^ 213; numen is the past parti-

ciple. For history and use, see Syntax.

Weak Imperfect ha?fde <C-\/haf-ia-{- dc (^ 160).

Gothic.

86 STRONG VERB— SUBJUNCTIVE.

1G9.

Singular.

ic nime, (if) I take.

J)ft nime, (if) thou take.

he nim<?, {if) he take.

ic name, (if) I took.

J)<i name, (if) thou took.

he name, (if) he took.

Subjunctive Mode.

Present Tense.

Plural

pe nirae^i, (//") we take.

ge mme7i, (if) ye take.

hi mmen, (if) they take.

Imperfect.

pe n'dmen, (if) we took.

ge name«, (if) ye took.

hi naraen, (if) they took.

Future.

(//) / shall {will) take.

ic scyle (pille) nimaw.

J)<i scyle (pille) mman.he scyle (pille) mman.

Transitive Form.

Sing. (^) ^ have taken.

ic haebbe nurae^z.

J)11 hsebbe nwraen.

he haebbe numen.

Plur.

pe hsebbeji nwmen.

ge hsebbew wxmen.

hi hsebbe?i nume^?.

Sing. ((/") -^ ^'^'^ ic/:cn.

ic bajMe nume?z.

J)11 hajftZie nume?2.

he hds^de numew,

Plur.

pe hd&^den numew.

ge hdi^den nume?i.

hi hviiden nuraew.

pe scj\en (pillew) nimaw.

ge scyle^i (pillew) nimaw.

hi scyle^z (pillew) niraaw.

Perfect

Intransitive Form.

{If) I have (be) come.

ic st cume?i.

])ti st cumew.

he s^ cumew.

pe sm cume?2e.

ge sm cume^ie.

hi sm cume^ie.

Phiper'fect.

(If) I had (were) come.

ic pajre cume?i.

l)tl p«re cwmen.

he p&re cumew.

pe -p&ven cumewe.

ge -p&ren cumewe.

hi -p&ren cumewe.

Other Forms : scyle, scyl-en, -on, -an, -e (y'^i, u, co); hsebben, habban,

habbon ; si, sin (t^y, te, eb, ig) ; p&r-en, -an, -on (»>e). For si maybe bed, pese, peorde ; ^ox pxre, purde. ^ 179.

SUBJUNCTIVE. 87

[§ 1G8.—Continuedfrom page 85.J

Sanskrit da-dhd-mi <i-\/dha, Greek ri-Gij-fit, does not occur as an inde-

pendent verb in Gothic, and the form is supplied by comparison. The

reduplication has given rise to a secondary stem, Sanskrit dadh, Gothic

dad, O. H. Ger. tat, from which the plural and second singular are form-

ed with the ablaut of the first conjugation. For second singular -s, see

§ 166. In haf-ia-de~^hwfde, ia drops and -y/a shifts (^ 41).

IVO. Subjunctive Pkesext < Optative Ste^i nama-i (§ 162).

88 IMPERATIVE.—NOUN FORMS.

Sing.

2. nira, take.

172. iMPERATivfe Mode.

Plor.

xiyaxad^ take.

173. Infinitive.

nima??, to take.

Peesext Pakticiple.

mmende^ taking.

Gekund.

lu muxanne^ to take.

Past Paeticiple.

mune?i, taken.

174. Impekative Stem nama.

Sanski-it. Greek. Gothic. O.Saxon. O.Norgc. O.II. G.

SiNO. — niima v'nii.,Latin erne nim nim nem nim

Pluk.— nama-ta vkfie-re, Latin emi-te mmi-]j nima-cZ nemi-rf nema-«

Plural -tata> /a >i (^ 38) >rf (shifting, § 41, c). O.F.=A. Sax.

175, Noux FoEMS.

1. Infinitive 7ia7n-\-ana; 2. Gerund. nam-\-ana-\-ja.

^ . Cnam-anaj-a) {vEii-iiv<i-Evai\ .

1. Dative. ..< M . >ium-ara nira-a« ncm-a nem-an\ (§79,a) H (§70,«) i

2. (§ 120), nain-anija, Latin em-endo, O.Saxon iiira-annia>-anna. nem-ewne

„ „ . , (v'suo-vr-og ) . 7^ % . 7 7•

3. Pr.Part. nama-nt i . ) mma.-nd(a)-s nima-nd nema-?^f/-i nemn-nt-i( iaf. cme-nt-is )

LP. Part, (bhuff-na ) CrtK-vo-v (born)) . fga-nom-)

°V J > numa-n-s numa-w numi-n?i -I ,

{Strong.) { (bent) ) I do-nu-m (gift)) {_ an-er

'). P. Part. ( . . ,, iveu-Tj-Tv-c ) • , ^ , ^ . s • j j. ^ 1

^„, , ^ ^iia(m)-ta ] .^^ nasi-/; (a) s (gi-)neri-d tal-d-r gn-ncn-i(Weak.) ( I em(p)-tu-s )

(a.) The dative case ending is gone in Teutonic infinitives. § 38.

(b.) Gerund -enne^-ende {^ 445, 2, nn^nd, ^ 27, 5), so in O. N.;M.

H. Ger.; Friesic, O. Sax., and O. H. Ger. have a genitive nim-annias,

-an-nas {-es)\ nem-ennes ; and M. II. German has gen. nem-endes.

(c.) To these stems of the participles are added suffixes contained in

the case endings. §^ 104-106.

id.) The Greek verbals in -t6q are not counted participles (Hadley,

261, c). Only weak verbs have -da, -da, in Teutonic. Few verbs have

the participle in -na in Sanskrit ; only relics are found in Greek and Latin,

but all the strong verbs use it in Teutonic.

(e.) Weak stems in -ia and -0 have i, c, ig or igc, before -an, -annc,

-end. ^ 165, d.

17G. Peeiphkastic Conditional Foems.

Potential Mode.

Modal verbs magan, cunnan, motan, durran, pillan, sculan, pltari^utan,

may, can, must, dare, will, shall, let us.

PERIPHRASTIC CONDITIONAL FORMS.

Present Tense.

89

Sing. Indicative Forms.

masg, can, mot, dear

meaht, canst, most, dearst

mxg, can, mot, dear

Plue.

mdgon, cunnon, moton, dur-

ron

nunaji.

Subjunctive Forms

msege, cunne, mote, durre-^

msege, cunne, mote, durre

msege, cunne, mote, durre jj

msbgen, cunnen, moten, dur-

ren, utan

niman.

gjj^.Q Imperfect Tense, Indicative Forms.

meahte, ciide, moste, dorste, polde, sc(e)olde

meahtest, cudest, mostest, dorstest, poldest, sc(e)oldest

meahte, cude, moste, dorste, polde, sc{e)olde

Pluk.

meahton, cudon, moston, dorston, poldon, sc(e)oldon

Imperfect Tense, Subjunctive Forms.

Sing, meahte, cude, moste, dorste, polde, sc(e)olde

Plur. meahten, cuden, mosten, dorsten, polden, sc{e')oldcn

Gerundial Form.

I am to take= I must or ought to take or be taken.

Pluk.

niman.

niman.

Sing.

ic com

Jm eart^ to nimanne.

he is

pe sind

ge sind^ to nimanne.

hi sind

177. Othee Peripheastic Foems.

1. com (am) + present participle.

Present eom, eart, is ; smd nimende.

Imperfect pxs, pskre, pses ; p&ron nimende.

Future beam, bist, bid; beod nimende.

sceal pesan nimende.

Infinitive Future... beon nimende.

2. don (do) + infinitive, § 406, a.

Other Forms : meaht, meahte, etc. (ea'^i) ; mag-on, -urn, -un, -an ((z>aO;

meahtes ; mcaht-on, -um, -an, -en, -e (^^ 166,170); can, con; const;

cunn-on, -un, -an ; cudes ; cud-on, -an, -en ; mot-on, -um, -un, -an, -en ;

mot-en, -an, -e ; most-es ; most-um, -on, -an ; durre {u^y); durr-on,

-an; dorst-on, -en; poldes ; pold-on, -um, -un, -an, -e; sc(e)oldcs;

sc(e)old-on, -un, -an, -en, -e. Forms of com, peorde, and bcom inter-

change (^ 178).

90 CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VOICE.

17 8. Passive Voice.

Indicative Mode.

SiNGULAK. Plural.

Present and Perfect, 7 am taken or liaoe been taken.

ic eom* (peordc) numew.

})t\ QViVt {pcov&est) iwixwen.

he is (peovda/) wnxnen.

pe sind{o7i) (peorda^;?) tmmene.

ge sind{o7i) (peorda^) numene.

hi suid{on) (peoi-dat?) numewe.

Past and Pluperfect, I ivas taken or had been taken.

ic pa;s (peard) uumew.

}h1 p&re (purde) numcw.

hu pies (peard) numen.

pG p&row (purdon) rwxraene.

ge pffiro?i (purdow) rxwrnene.

hi p^Bro?^ (purdoji) numene.

ic be6(>n)* numen.

})11 bis^ numen.

he bif? nume?i.

Future.

1. / shall he taken.

pe beoc^ numene.

ge beo^ numene.

hi beo^ numene.

2. I shall or ivill be taken.

ic sceal (pille) beon numen.

]3ll sceal^ (pi^O ^g^'^ nume?z.

h6 sceal (pille) beon numen.

pe sculon (inWad) beon numene.

ge sculon- (pillat^) beon numene.

hi sculon (pillarf) beon numene.

Perfect, / have been taken.

jc com geporden numen.

jm eart geporden numen.

he IS geporden numen.

pe sind{on) gepordene numene.

ge sind(on') gepordene numene.

hi sind{on) gepordene numene.

Pluperfect, I had been taken.

tc pxs geporden numen.

pu pxre geporden numen.

he pxs geporden numen.

pe pieron gepordene numene.

ge pwron gepordene numene.

hi psivon gepordene numene.

Sing.

ic (l)tl, he) beo numen.

IVO. Subjunctive Mode.

Present.

(//") / he taken.

Plur.

pe (ge, hi) beon numene.

* The forms of/?eor(fe, eom, and beom interchange.

PERIPHRASTIC CONDITIONAL FORMS. 91

Sing.

ic Qjti, be) -psbre numm.

Past.

(If) I loere taken.

Pluk.

pe (ge, hi) -psbven numme.

180. Imperative Mode.

Sing. -Se thou taken:

pes 2)tl nvLxnen.

181. Infinitive.

bed;* numen, to be taken.

Plck. Be ye taken.

pesaf? ge mvaiene.

Participle.

nume^i, taken.

182. PePvIpheastic Conditional (§ 176).

Potential Mode.

Present Tense.

Sing. Indicative Forms.

maeg (&c.)

meaht (&c.)

mseg (&c.) )-bem numen{e).

Plcr.

mdgon (&c.)

Subjunctive Forms.

mxge (&c.)"j

m&ge (Szc.) I

m&ge (&c.) > Zieore nwmen(e).

mxgen (&c.) J

Imperfect.

Sing.

meahte (&c.)

meahtest (&c.)

meahte (&c.)

Pluk.

meahton (&c.)

Jeore numen{e).

meahte (&c.)

meahte (&c.)

7neahte (&c.)

mcahien (&c.)

icon numen{e).

For ieon (infinitive) is found />e5an or peordan. The forms interchange of

ieo, 5J, /'ese, peorde ; of piiire, purde ; of /;ej, 5eo, peord. Bist, bid (i >y) ;

ieo, beud {e6<Ci6). ^Ifric's grammar has indie, prcs. coot, imperf />a.'j,

fut. Jeo, perf. /?«^ fulfremedllce (completely), pluperf. pxs gefyrn (for-

merly) ; subjunctive for a wish, pres; bed gyt (yet), imperf. p&re, pluperf.

pxre fulfremedllce ; for a condition, pres. eom nu (now), imperf. y^ic^, fut.

bed gyt (yet); imperative si; infinitive beun.

92 CONJUGATION OF WEAK VERBS.

183. WEAK VERBS.— (Conjugation VI.)

Active Voice.

Pres. IxFISITIVE.

neYia)i, savej

hyran, hear;

lufzaw, love;

Impekp. Indicative.

\\jxde;

lufoc?e/

Passive Participle.

nerec?.

hyrec?.

Indicative Mode.

Present (and Future) Tense (§ 165, d).

I save, hear, love.

Singular.

ic nevie, hjre, lufige.

\>A nevest, hyrcst, lufdst.

lie nercct, hjrect, lufdd.

Plural.

pe neviad, hyrad, \nflad.

go neviad, hyrad, Infiad.

hi neviad, hyrad, hifiad.

Imperfect (§§ 160, 166, 168).

/ saved, heard, loved.

ic nevede, hyvde, \ufode.

J)^ nevedest, hyvdest, lufddest.

he nevede, hyvde, lufdde.

pe neredon, hyrdon, Ixxiodon.

ge neredon, hyrdon, Iniodon.

hi neredon, hyrdon, \nfddo7i.

ic sceal (pille)

l^li sceal^ (pi'O

he sceal (pille)

Future (§167).

/ shall (will) save, hear, love.

pc senior (pillar^) ^ nerian^

ge sculori {j)i\\a(t) y hyran^hi scvi\07i (pillac/) ) Infian.

nerian, hyra7i,

\ufian.

Perfect (§168).

Transitive.

/ have saved, heard, loved.

Sing.

ic hsebbe ) , , a -,

1311 hxfst, hafdst i''

j^'4'

he hiefd, haf(«^ )

Plur.

pe hahhadJ

ge hahhad > neved, hyred, Infdd.

hi habbaf^ )

Intransitive.

I have (am) returned.

ic eoni ^

J)11 eart > gecyrref?.

he is )

pe sind (sinclon) j

ge sind (sindon) > gecyrrec?e.

hi sind (sindon) )

la, iga, igea, ga interchange, and ie, ige, ge : o'^(d, ?i)>plur. e. For va-

riations of auxiliaries and endings, see corresponding tenses of strong verbs.

CONJUGATION OF WEAK VERBS.

Pluper'fect (§168).

93

Transitive.

7 had saved, heard, loved.

Sing.

ic boefc/e \

J)11 \i^Mest > nerec?, hjref?, lufoc?.

he hsefc^e )

Plur.

pe \\X:idon \

ge hvd^don > nerec?, hyved., lufoc?.

hi hdiidon )

Intransitive.

I had (loas) returned.

ic pees J

J)t\ pare >• gecyrrec?.

be pjES )

pe j)§ivon \

ge psero^i > gecyrrecZe.

bi pasro^i )

184. SuBjuxcTivE Mode

Present (§ 170).

(7/*) I save, hear, love.

Singular.

ic \ pe

]3ll > nerze, byre, lufj^ye.

be )

Plural.

ge \ nere'ew, hfven^ Ixxiigen.

bt

Imperfect (§ iTl).

(//") 7 saved, heard, loved.

IC

J)<i [• nerecZe, byr<?e, luKde.

hege

[•nQxeden^ hynden^ \\xi6de7i.

hi

ic scyle (pille) ,.

T.A 1 / -11 \ f nerza?i, byraw,^a scyle (pille)

^

' .y

he scyle (pille)^ ^"^'''''

Future (§ 1G7).

{If) I shall {will) save, hear, love.

pe scyle^i (pillew) , . , ^A „ , / -n \ f ner^c«^, hyr-

hi scyle^i (pillew)an, lufi'a??.

Perfect (§168).

Transitive.

{If I) have saved, &c.

Sing, haebbe ) neref?, h5're(7,

Plur. haebbe^i ) lufwZ.

Intransitive.

{If I) have {be) returned.

Phiper'fect (§168).

{If 7) /jad saved, &c.

Sing, hoefde ) nerecZ, bj'rcf?,

Plur. hvsfden ) lufof?.

(7/* 7) had {were) returned.

pai-'^ f gecyrrcc?(e).

9J: CONJUGATION OF WEAK VERBS.—WEAK PEESENTS.

185. Imperative Mode (§ 174).

Save, hear, love.

Sing. Plur.

2. nere, bjr, Infd. ueviad, hyrad, \nUact.

186. Infinitive Mode (§ 1V5).

To save, hear, love.

Present, nevian^nerigan, ncrif/ean, nergcin; hyran/ lufian'^

IwUgan, lufigean.

Gerund, to ncvia7ine, hyrarme, Infkmiie.

Participles.

Saving, hearing, loving.

Present. nQviende, hyrende, Ixxilgende.

saved. heard. loved.

Past nerec?, hyred, (ge-) \nfod.

187. The sjpecial perij^hrastic forms and the whole passivevoice of weak verbs are conjugated with the same auxiliaries as

those of strong verbs (§§ 176-182).

188. PRESENTS (Weak).

(a.) Like neriaii inflect stems in -ia from short roots : derian.,

Imrt ; helian., cover; hegian, hedge ; scerian^ apportion ; spyrian^

speer ; sylian, soil; Jninian, thunder, etc.

(5.) But many stems in -ia from short roots have compensa-tive gemination of their last consonant where it preceded i—(throughout the present, excej^t in the indicative singular second

and third, and the imperative singular) ;ci> cc, di > dd, fi > hb^

glycg, liyll, etc.; indicative lecge {<legie), lay, legest, leged;

lecgad {<legiad)', subjunctive lecge, lecgen; imperative lege^

lecgad; infinitive Zec^a?^/ part. pres. ^ec^ewc?e/ part, past /eye<?.

So reccan, reach; Jireddan, rescue

; hahhan, have; seUan, give ;

telkm, tell; frem'inan, frame

; clynnan, clang ; dvppan, dip; cnys-

san, knock ; settan, set, etc.

(c.) Like h^ran inflect stems in -^a>-e> — from long roots:

dixilan, deal; deman, deem

; helwpan, leave; msenan, mean

;

sprengan, spring ; styrman, storm; cennan, bring forth

; cyssan,

kiss, etc. Infinitives in -ea7i occur: sec-ean, § 175, e.

SYNCOPATED IMPERFECTS (WEAK). 95

(d.) Like lufian inflect stems showing -6 in the imperfect :

drian, honor; beorhtkm, shine

; cleopkm, call; hojnan, hope.

Past participles have o, a, e; gegearp-od, -dd, -ed, prepared.

189. SYNCOPATED IMPERFECTS {Weak).

(«.) Stem -e < -ia is syncopated after long roots : cig-an, call,

cig-de j dwl-on, deal, d'M-de ; dem-coi, deem, dein-de ; dref-an,

trouble, dref-de ; fed-cm^ feed; Md-an, heed; li^r-mi^ hear; l&d-

an^ lead; he-lwp-an, leave

; mmi-an, mean; oi^d-an, urge ;

rtd-

an, read; sped-an^ speed ; sjyrejig-an^ spring, spreng-de ; hvem-an^

burn, hmrn-de ; styrm-an^ storm; so sep-de and sep-te, showed.

(b.) AssniiLATiojf.—After a surd, -c? becomes surd{-t). (Surds

p, t, c (a;), ss, h, not f or s alone, §§ 17, 30) : r^p-an, bind, rUp-te ; bet-cm, better, btt-te ; gret-mi, greet, grtt-te ; met-an, meet,

mtt-te ; drenc-an, drench, drenc-te,' l^x-an, shine, lyx-te ; but Igs-

an, release, Igs-de; fgs-an, haste, f^s-de / ni's-an, rush, ncs-dc.

(e.) Dissimilation.—The mute c becomes continuous (A) before

-t : tsec-an, teach, tich-te ; eo-an, eke, eh-te and tc-te, 36, 3.

{d.) RiJCKUMLAUT.—Themes in ecg ; ecc, ell ; enc, eng; ec ; ycg,

ync, i-umlaut for acg; ace, all; anc, ang; 6c ; ucg, tine, mayretain a (>«/ ea ; 0); 6; icy o in syncopated imperfects (§§

209-211) : lecgan, lay, liegde ; reccan, rule, reahte ; cpellan, kill,

fpealde ; pencan, think, polite ; brengan, bring, brohte ; rtcan,

reck, rohte ; bycgan,h\\y, bohte ; pyncan, sQQm, pohte.

(e.) Gemixatio^j is simplified, and mwyin (Rule 13, page 10) :

cewn-aw, beget, cen-de ; clypp-an, clip, clqy-te ; cyss-an,'k\?,s, cys-te;

dypp-an, dip, dyp-te ; eht-an, pursue, elite ; fyll-an, fill, fyl-de ;

gyrd-an, gird, gyrde ; hredd-an, rescue, hredde ; hyrd-an, harden,

hyrde ; Jiyrt-an, hearten, hyrte ; hveft-an, bind, hwfte; lecg-an,

lay, leg-de ; merr-an, mar, mer-de ; mynt-an, purjDose, mynte ;

nemn-an, name, nem-de; rest-an, rest, reste ; riht-an, right, rihte ;

scild-an, guard, scilde ; send-an, send, sende ; spill-an, spill, sptil-

de ; sett-an, set, sette ; still-an, spring, stil-de ; stylt-an, stand as-

tonished, stylte ; pemm-an, ?>]}o\\, pem-de.

(/.) EcTiiLiPsis occurs {g) : cegan, call, cegde, cede. See § 209.

1 90. Past Participles are syncopated like imperfects in verbs

having rilckumlaut, often in other verbs having a surd root (§ 189,

I)),less often in other verbs: sellan, give, sealde, seald ; ge-sec-an,

seek, ge-soh-te, gesoJit ; sett-an, set, sette, seted and set; send-an,

send, sende, sended and send ; hedn, raise, head, raised.

96 ILLUSTRATIONS OF UMLAUT AND ASSIMILATION.

Conjugation (I.)

dvepan,

Sing.— 1,

191. Pkesents.—Illustrations of Umlaut.

(I.) (I-) (in.)

cumrt?i, beorgaw, scMan,come. guard. shove.

cume beorcfc sctife

Plue.—

strike.

drepe

( drip (e) si

(drcpesi

idrip(e)f^

i'epect

drepat?

cym{e)st j byrbsi j scjf(e)si j

cxxmest \ hcorgcst(jj){ BcMest \

fdrip(e)f^ j cym.{e)ct j byrhrf J scyf(e)rf(0 j

(drepef^ ( cumer^ ( beorge(%)( s,cMed \

Conjugation... (IV.)

ixvan,

fare.

Sing.— 1. fare

litev{e)st'

(farcsi

*

\^-xved

Pi.UE.— i^rad

cwiiwad

(IV.)

baca^^,

bake.

bace

hQCSt

baccsi

bec^

bacet^

hvicad

hcoYgad

(V.)

fe.allaw,

fall.

fealle

felsi

feallesi

Mdfeallec^

feallat?

j becsi j felsi j lacsi!j

( baccsi ( feallesi ( \ixcest \

scMad

(V.)

leap.

lace

Ifficsi!

j \&c{e)d

\ \ixced

\hcad

192. Illustrations of Assimilatiori.

Conjugation.

Sing.— 1.

Pluk.—

... (L)

Qian,

eat.

ete

(it{e)st

letest

Cited, it

dad

(!•)

treda;?,

tread.

trede

(!•)

binda;*,

hi7id.

binde

(!•)

cped«?z,

quoth.

cpede

tn(de)si j bin(t)s< j cpisi

tredes? ( bindesi ( cpedesiJ

trit j bint j cpid

iYQded{i) { bindef^ ( cpedec/tvedar? binda/^ cpedac?

Conjugation (I.)

berstan,

Sing.— 1. berste

birst

Gvs,iest

3.

PlXE.—

(in.)

leogan,Z«e.

leoge

j lyhs«

f birst (ef?) j \y\\d

(berste^ ( laogedberstac/ leogat/

fbir

[bei

(IV.)

slean<sleaha?z,

slay.

slea

j slehsi (y)

( &\c^gest

slehf/ (y)

slea^e<^

sleat^

(IIL)

fleun<

fleohan,

flee.

fleo

}flyhs«

]

[flyh^

(m.)

creopcMi,

creej).

creope

cryp(e)s«

creopesi

cryp(e)(^

creupec?

creopac^

(V.)

gr6pa?i,

groic.

grope

grepsi

gropes^

groped

gr6pe<^

grupac?

(I.)

\esan,

collect.

lese

lisi!

lesesi

lisif

lesed

Ic&ad

(I.)

licgaw,

lie.

liege

Wgst

licgesi

li(c)ge*^

licg«f{f

VARIATIONS. OF THE PRESENT INDICATIVE. 97

Vabiatioxs of Present Indicative.

193. Stem 4 > -e in the singular second and third person works

on the root vowel differently from -« > -e of the other persons.

(1.) Root i is here unchanged, while other forms have a-um-

laut {i>e), § 32, or breaking (i>eo), § 33: drepan; steorfan^

starve, steorfe, stirf{e)st, stirf{e)ct, steorfad; but y, not e, is usu-

ally found with eo, and often incorrectly with e.

(2.) Here is i-umlaut of a, ea, eo, u, a, o, ea, eo, 1\,

to e, e(y), y, y, ^, e, e(y), y, y:

bacan^ feallan, slea/ian y sledn, heorgan, cuman, Mean, gropan,

hledpan, creopan, scilfan. § 32.

(3.) Here is shifting of aysa: faran ; a> e is rare. § 41.

194. Stem -i^-e of the singular second and third person is

often syncopated in. strong verbs and weak verbs of the first class-

Then Variation of root vowel remains,

Assimilation of consonants follows,

Gemination is simi^lified: etan, td^t (§ 35, J})',

tredan, dst > st (§ 35, A), ddy t (§ 36, 5) ; hindan, ndst > ntst >nst (§ 35, A), ndd>nt (§ 30, 5) ; cpedan, dst > st (§ 35, A), ddyd (§ 20, 13) ; lesa7i, sst>st (§ 20, 13), sdyst (§ 35, J^) ; berstan,

stst> st, std> Si5( § 35, ^) ; leogan, gst> hst, gd> hd (§ 35, J3) ;

drifan, drive, drif{e)st, drif{e)d or drift (§ 35, JB).

(a.) The ending of the third person -d (-p) was a surd (/) when these

changes were established (e.g. dd^t). Gothic grammars give -/», but -d

is often in the manuscripts ;Old Saxon grammars give -d, but -th is often

found. English has uniformly -ih= -p. In Gothic, any dental+ a preced-

ing dental = 5i; +a preceding labial =/(,• +a preceding guttural= A^, a

law which illustrates the frequent appearance of final t in Anglo-Saxon. In

Anglo-Saxon folkspecch there was doubtless variation in the sound of this

ending, as in Gothic and Old Saxon ; in syncopated forms it was surd after

surds : cnjpd (p), creeps ;drincd (p), drinks ;

sonant after sonants (rare) :

brined, brings (z) ;but the predominant sound was always surd, as in Gothic

and English. Compare liget for liged, lieth.

(S.) Of the three forms given of the singular second and third persons, the

syncopated (dripd) is the common prose form, the unsyncopated, unvaried, or

varied by i-umlaut {driped, byrged) is more frequent in poetry, the varied

by a-umlaut (drcpcd) is a later conformation with the other persons.

195. Vorbs from roots in -h contract (§ 52) : slecm <. sleahan ;

fleOn ^fleohan.

190. Stems in -ia with compensative gemination hold it exceptG

98 SUMMARY OF VARIATIONS IN CONJUGATION.

in the indicative singular second and third— sometimes through-

out; but the imperative singular has -e (§§ 188, b ; 199; 207, d) :

licgan < Ugian, lie, imperative lige.

197. Variatiox IX Stkong Imperfects.

cpedan, sleahan> seahan > ceosau,

quoth. slean, slay. seon, see. choose.

Sing.—cpred sloh {g) seali ceas

epajde sloge sjege, sape cure

cpted sloh((/) seah ceas

Plue.—cpjedon slogon ssgon, sapon curon

Part.—cpedcn sl»gen sepen, segen coren :

dy d (§ 3G, 2) ;A > r7 (§ 36, 2) ; «>/'(§ 35, 3, h) ;

h >p in sape

(Gothic salhvan) is really hp'^p (§ 35, 3, b). So inflect Itdan,

Idct, lido7i, sail, etc. (§ 205) ; seodan., sedd, sudon, seethe, etc.

(§ 206) ; tedh, tuge < teohayi, tug ; freosan, freeze (frore) ; for-

leosan, lose (forlorn) ; hreosan, rush; pesaji, be, p. p. pesen, etc.

(§ 206).

198. Summary of Variations in Conjugation.

(rt.)The root vowel may take five forms :

(1.) Throughout the present except the indicative singular sec-

ond and third persons.

(2.) In the indicative singular second and third persons.

(3.) In the imperfect singular first and third persons.

(4.) In the other forms of the imperfect.

(5.) In the passive participle.

{b) Consonant assimilation works mainly on the indicative sin-

gular second and third persons, and on the weak imperfects and

passive participles.

(e.) We give the present indicative singular first, second, and

third persons, the imperfect indicative singular first person and

plural first person, and the passive participle.

id.) Only the varied syncopated forms of the present indicativfe second

and third persons are often given ;the other regular forms generally occur,

but may be easily supplied (^ 193, h). Any variation of vowel, or assimila-

tion of consonants, which has been given in the phonology, ar\d is here re-

corded as found in any verb, may be looked for with any similar verb. The

variations of the imperfect plural -on (^^ 166, 170) are not given. The final

root consonants determine the arrangement,—

labials, dentals, gutturals.

Vowels in parenthesis after a word are variations of its root vowels.

FIRST CONJUGATION.—VARIATION. 99

First Coxjugatiox, y'a.

199.^1. Roots ending in a single consonant not a liquid:

Ablaut (t; a, a; i)'^(e; a;,&; e); t>e,a-umlaut; a> a?, a >c'e>e, shift-

ing (^^ 158, 32, 41) ; (y, ie) < f, bad spelling, is frequent ; variation of con-

sonants, ^ 194. Layamon and Ormulum hold the Ang.-Sax. ablaut, though

with varying spelling ; in Old English it is broken up, especially in the im-

perfect, where both numbers at last are alike. English ablaut (ce, ea; a, a;

ee, ea)^{t; a ov e ; i) : eat, ate (et\ eaten; for stems with ^-breaking

and in -ia (t; a, a; i): bid, bade, bidden; e>«, progression (^38); a;>e,

shifting (^ 41). Most of these verbs vary in English from their type in con-

formation with the forms in § 200, and with weak verbs.

Part. Past.

\ ff-^r \ Strike.

Uo),^200. )

spefen, sleep.

pefen, weave.

eten, eat.

freten, eat up.

meten, mete.

cneden, knead.

trcden, tread.

cpeden, quoth.

lesen, gather.

-nesen, recover.

ge-pesen, he

sprecen, speak.

prcccn, wreak.

Lndicative Pkesent. iMrEEP. Sing. Pluk.

1st. 2d. 3d.

drepe, drip{e)st, drip{e)d (p) ; driep, dnepon ;

spefe, spif(e')st, spif{e)d{p, ; spief, sp&fon ;

pefe, pif{e)st, pifle)d (p, t) ; pwf, pxfon (c) ;

ete, it(_e)st, it ited(ij, ie, e) ; wt, eeton ;

frete, frit(e) st, frit frited ; frwt, fr&ton ;

mete, mit(e)st, mit ; msst, mseion ;

cnede, cni{de)st, cnit ; cnxd, cn&don;

trede,trist tndes, tnt tridedl^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ,

(.y, le, e) ;)

cpede, cp'ist, cpid{y) cpeded; cpxd, cp&don;

lese, list, list ; lies, Ixson ;

ge-nese, -nist, -nist ; -nses, -nxson ;

{pese, pesest, pesed) rare ; pxs, pseron ;

sp{r)ece (<•»), spriest, spricd (p) ; spriec, spreecon ;

prece, priest, pried (p) ; prxc, prxcon ;

pege, pigst ihst), pigd (hd) ; pa;g (h), patgon (a, e) ; pegen, carry.

irece, see ^ 200; hpete, whet; pede, hind; j^ece, stick, are doubtful; so also

(Jitan, arripere ; hnipan, collabi ; gipan, hiare ; screjoe, scrape ; />e£?e, wed).

^-breaking : i > {ie, to, eo>y); ayeay e, a > ed> e. §§ 33, 35.

gife (ie, &c.), gifst, gif(e)d (/-) ; geaf Cv, e), geafon (e) ; gifen, give.

for-gite (le, &c.), -gitst, -git ; -gcat {x, e), -geaton (e) ; -giten, forget.

A -breaking: iy eo, a'^eay e. §§33,35.

seohe (sco), sihst, si(h)d (i/>eo) ; seah, sAgon (e), sdpon ; ge-sepen,-g-, see.

ge-feohe (-fed), -fihst, -fi{h)d ; -feah {e), -fii-gon ; -fegen, rejoice.

Stems in -ia (compensative gemination, § 196), no a-umlaut,oi- late.

The imperative has -e : frige, site, but plur. picgead occurs.

fric"-e, fri!r(e)st(hst), frii^(c)d') . ^. { gefrwen} .

jrie^L,jiig^K<i)o,,y J, J a^ /V friPg,friL'gon; 1 / f > mquire.

(Jid,}));> <. (^)^)j >

liege, ligst, lig{e)d{t), lid (/) ; Iceg, hegon (a, e) ; Itgen, lie.

100 FIRST CONJUGATION.—VARIATION.

ISDIOATIVB PbESENT.

lat. 2d. 3il. Imperf. Sing. Pluk. Takt. Past.

Picge, pigst, pig{e)d (Jid) ; peak (Pa/i), pxgon (a, e) ; pigen, take.

sitte, sit(e)st, sit ; swt, swton ; gc-setcn, sit.

I)idde, bi(de)st, bit ; bxd,bxdon; bcden, bid.

Add fccge,feah, fetch; 5/>n7/e, sprout ; {hlicce, h\a.me; snicce, sneak) 1

200.—II. Roots ending in a single liquid :

Ablaut {i; a, a; w)>(j {eo, y) ; o, 6; u) (e ; x, ai; o); i'^(eo, y), a'^o,

a ]> o, m-assimilation ;i> e, m> o, a-u-mlaut ; a> a', a> aj, shifting ;

i >eo,

a^ca, r-breaking ; eo>y, i-umlaut : («, ea)>e, shifting. ^^158,35,32,41.

English ablaut {ea; a or v; o) : steal, stole, stolen; la, a, ^ 199; o

lengthened in the past part., conformation in the imperfect.

nime (eo, y), nim(e)st, nim{e)d; nam (o), namon (o) ; numcn, take.

cpime'^\ cim(e)st ^^cim(e)d

"^ cpam.(o)\ cpdmon(o)\ cumen}cume } cym(e)st) cym{e)d ) com ) comon

cpele, cpilst, cpild; cpxl, cpMon ;

come.

ge-dpele, -dpilst, -dpiht ;

hele, hilst, hild ;

hpele, hpilst, hpild;

stele, stilst, stild;

spele, spilst, spild;

bere, birst (y), bird (y) ;

scere (eo), scirst (y), scird (y) ;

tere, tirst, tird (y) ;

ge-ppere, -ppirst, -ppird;

brece, Iricst, bricd (p) ;

-dpxl, -dpMon ;

hxl, h&lon;

hpsd, hpMon ;

stxl, stxlon ;

spxl, spxlon ;

bxr, bxron ;

scxr (ea, e), scxron ;

txr, txron ;

-Ppxr, -ppxron;

brxc, brabcon ;

cpolen, kill.

-dpolen, err.

Jiolen, conceal.

hpolen, sound.

stolen, steal.

spolen, sweal.

boren, bear.

scoren, shear.

toren, tear.

i-pporen^-puren >weld.

-Pruen, j

brocen, break.

201.— III. Roots ending in two consonants, the first a nasal:

Ablaut (i; a, u; u) ; i^y, bad spelling, is frequent; a^o, nasal assimi-

lation (^^ 158, 35) ; variation of consonants, ^ 194.

Final gemination is often preserved. Unsyncopated forms are very com-

mon (^ 194). English ablaut {i ; a or u ; it) : swim, swam or swum, swum;but stems in -nd have progression (I,- ou; ou)=di; du; du) : find,found.

hlimme, hlimst, hlimd; hlam{o), hlummon; hlummen,

grimme, grimst, grimd; gram (o), grummon ; grummen.

spimme, spimst, spimd; spam (o), spummon ; spummen,

climbe (^ 36), dimst, cltmd; clamh (omm), clumbon ; clumben,

ge-limpe, -limpst, -limpd (p) ; -lump, -lumpon ; -lumpen,

ge-nmpe, -rimpst, -rimpd(p) ; -ramp, -rumpon ; -rumpen,

brinne (beorne, ^ 204), bnnst, >

^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ .

brind; )

on-ginne, -ginst, -gind; -gan, -gunnon ; -gunnen.

brunnen.

sound,

rage,

swim,

climb,

happen,

rumple.

burn.

begin.

FIRST CONJUGATION.—VARIATION. 101

b-linne, linst, lin{ni)ct;

rinne (eorne, § 203), rinsi

sinne, sinst, sinct;

spinne, spinst, spind;

pinne, pinst, pind;

stinte, stin(t)st, stint;

J)rinte, prin(t)st, print ;

binde, bin{t)st, bint;

finde, fin{t)st, fint ;

grinde, grin(t)st, grint ;

hrinde, hrin(t)st, hrint ;

spinde, spinet) st, spint ;

pinde, pin(t)st, pint ;

pinde, pin(t)st, pint ;

crince, crincst, crincdCp);

d-cpince, -cpincst, -cpincd (p) ;

prince, drincst, drincd (p) ;

for-scrince, -scrincst, -scrincd )

since, sincst, sincd (p) ;

stince, stincst, stincd (p) ;

spince, spincst, spincd (p) ;

bringe {cge), bringst, bringd;

clinge, clingst, clingd;

Ian, lunnon ;

102 FIRST CONJUGATION.—VARIATION.

202.— IV. lioot in two consonants, tlic first ^, or three con-

sonants \vitli metathesis of r :

Ablaut {i ; a, u ; it) > {c ; .t, u ; o) ; ?>?,«>«, a-umlaut{!^ 32) ; a>

»>e, shifting {^ 41). Umlaut and shifting stopped by n. (^^ 200,201.

Impeef. Sing. Tlur. Part. Past.Indicativb Pkesent.

lat. 2(1. 3(1.1 n rl ( \

breffde } brardest} bregdcd ) brwgd ) brugdon (, '^, , ) , .,K .?x . h , •: Tz J r? J -^irof/era, ire- S braid.) bnt ) brxd ) brudon i , , . „„ Ibrede ) bri{t)st ( den, i 199 )

stregde\ strigdest\ strigded)^ strwgd '^ slrugdon slrogdenstrede ) slri{t)st ) strit i strxd i

frigne\ \ \ frxg{e)n\ ~ j.

\cf\ I I I (e)Ifrugnonl frugnen

J. .' \ r

, { J- * \ ^ \ frunon > frunenfrme J jnnsl ) fnna ) jran ) •' ''

berste, birst, birst{ed) (ie) ; bxrst, burston ; borsten,

persce, pirsccst, pirsced; pxrsc, purscon ; porscen,

I strow,

( sprinkle.

Iask.

burst,

thresh.

203.—V. Root in two consonants, first a trill (I or r) :

(a.) Ablaut (i ; a, u ; u)^{e; ea,u; o) ; i>e, m>o, a-umlaut (1^32);

a^ea (l-breaking, ^ 33)>co (irregular spelling), ox pea'^ peo, p-assimila-

tion (^ 35) ? Unsyncopated forms in e are common :

helpest, helped. En-

glish ablaut {e; a, e or o; o); ea>a or c, shifting, ^ 38, A; o, ^ 200; but all

imperfects have become weak: help; {halp, help, holp), helped; (holpeh),

helped.

bcal, billion ; bollen, bellow.

(speal (speoll, Rask),> ,, ,,

1 .w/1. [spollen, swell.

belle, bilst, biht;

spelle, spilst, spild ;

helpc; hilpst (e), hilpd (p) ;

delfe, dilfst, dilfd;

melte, miltst, milt ;

spelte, spiltst, spilt {i^ie,y) ;

be-telde, -til{t)st, -tilt ;

melee, milcst, ?nilcd{p) ;

beige, bilgst (Jist), bilgd{hd) ;

felge, filgst (hst), filgd (hd) ;

1 spullon ; )

healp, hulpen; holpen, help.

dealf, dulfon ; dolfen, delve.

mcalt, multon ; molten, melt.

spealt{eo?), spulton; spolten, die.

tcald, tuldon ; tolden, cover up.

mealc, mulcon ; molcen, milk.

bealg{h), bulgon; bolgen, be wroth.

fealg(h), fulgon; folgen, go into.folgen,

Cspolgen ~\

spelge, spilgst {hst), spilg{e)d{hd) ; spealg{h), spulgon ; I (spelgen, ^swallow

Add d-selce (e>eo, ea), sulk.'

Koch), 3

^/-breaking, i>ieyy (§ 33) ; z>e is also founcl, a-uinlaut,

§§32, 194, J.

gille {e, ie, y), gilst {ie, y), gild {ie, y) ; geal, gullon ; gollen, yell.

gilpe {ie, y), gilpst {ie, y), gilpd {p) {ie, y) ; gealp, gulpon ; golpen, boast.

gilde {ie, y), g%l{t)st {ie, y), gilt {ie, y) ; geald, guidon ; golden, pay.

SECOND CONJUGATION.—VARIATION. 103

204.—(^>.)

Before r (and h) :

Ablaut (i; a,u; u)^{eo; ea,u; o) ; i>eo, a>ea, breaking ('5> 33) ; m>o,a-umlaut {^ 32). After labials {p, m, p), eo may go to u {^ 35, 2) ; y for i

abounds. Unsyncopated broken forms prevail : peorpest, peorped. A'^owels

brought before r by metathesis often retain their old umlaut: rinne'^irne ;

brinne^birne ; bersce, perste (^ 202). English like {a) ; eo>e, ^ 38, A.

georre, gyrst, gyrd; gear, gurron . gorren, whur.

eorne (i,y), yrn{e)st {i, eo), yrn{e)ct\ {earn) am (o), \

(i, eo) ;3 urnon ; i

beorne{i,y), beorn(e)st {y), beorn{e)d\ beam {barn) (o), | ,

(y) ; ) burnon ; i

urnen, run.

omen. burn.

meorne («), myrnst, myrnd;

speorne {u, o), spyrnst, sprjrnd;

peorpe {u, y), pyrpst, pyrpd {p) ;

ceorfe, cyrfst, cyrfd;

deorfe, dyrfst, dyrfd;

hpeorfe {u, o, y), hpyrfst, hpyrfd;

steorfe, styrfst, styrfd;

speorfe, spyrfst, spyrfd {() ;

peorde {u, y), pyrst, pyrd{ed) ;

beorce, byrcsl, byrcp;

mearn, murnon, momen, mourn.

spearn, spurnon ; spomen, spurn.

pearp, purpon ;

cearf, curfon;

dearf, durfon;

hpearf, hpurfon ;

stearf, sturfon ;

spearf, spurfon ;

peard, purdon ;

bearc, bureau ;

parpen, throw.

corfen, carve.

darfen, suffer.

hparfen, return,

tdie,

(starve.

sporfen, cleanse.

porden, become.

barcen, bark,

sporcen, faint.

storfen,

spearce, spyrcst, spyrcd {p) {sporced) ; spearc, spurcan ;

bearge, byrgst{hst), byrg{e)d{hd); bearg{h),burgon; borgen, guard.

feahte, fyhlst, fyht ; feaht, fuhton; fohten, fight.

205. Second Conjugation, ^/i.

Ablaut {i; a; i; i) ; i'>y, I'^y, bad spelling ; .sc-breaking or A-breaking

a>ea (i>io.?), t>eo ("^ 33) ; a>», shifting. English ablaut (i; d; i) =(di ; 6; i) ; i^di, d^o, progression {^ 38) : drive, drove, driven.

dptne, dpin{e)st, dpin{e)d;

gine, gin{e)st, gin{e)d;

hrtne, hrin{e)st, hrin{e)d;

hptne, hpin{e)st, hpin{e)d;

seine, scin{e)st, sctn{e)d;

gripe, grip{e)st, gnp{c)d (/) ;

nipe, nip{e)st, nip{e)d {p) ;

ripe, rip{c)st, rip{e)d {p) ;

to-slipan, -srip{e)st, -slip{e)d{p)

be-Vife, -ljf{e)st, -lif{e)d;

clife, cltf{e)st, clif{e)d;

drifc, d/if{c)st, dnf{e)d {ft) ;

scr'ife, serif{e)st, serif{e)d ;

slifc, slif{e)st, slif{e)d;

dpdn, dpinan ;

10-i SECOND CONJUGATION.—VAlilATION.

Indicative riiESEUT.

1st. 2ii. 3cl.

sp'ife, spif{c)st, spif{c)d;

spipe, sjnp{c)st, sptp{e)(t ;

bite, hU{e)st, b1t{cd) ;

jfltte, fiit{e)st, Jilt ;

hnitc, hnit{c)st, hnit ;

slite, slit{c)st, slit ;

smite, smU{c)st, smit ;

ppite, Ppit{e)st, ppit{ed) ;

pile, pit(e)st, pit(eit); subj. pitan,

y-putanyutan, §§ 176, 224, c.

plite, prit{e)st, plit{ed) ;

prite, prit{e)st, prit{ed) ;

llde, hidcst {ht{t)st), bided {bit) ; bad, bidon ;

Imperfect

SiNo. Pluk.

spcif, spifon ;

spap {an), spipon ;

but, hiton;

fiat, fiiton ;

hnat, hniton ;

slat, sliton ;

smdt, smiton;

ppdt, ppiton (eo) ;

V pat, piton;

plat, pliton ;

prat, priton ;

cide, ci{t)st, cit ;

(?) lide, list, tided lid;

glide, glist, glit ;

gnide, gnist, gmt ;

hlide, Mist, hlit ;

ride, rist, rit ;

slide, slist, slit ;

stride, strist, strit ;

pride, prist, prit ;

lide, U{de)st, lid{ed) ;

mide, mist, mid;

scride, scrist, scrid;

slide, sli{de)st, slid;

snide, snist, snid;

pride, prist, prid;

pride, prist, prid;

cad, cidon (cidde) ;

lad, lidon ;

glad, glidon;

gnud, gnidon ;

lildd, hlidon ;

rdd, ridon (io) 1 ;

sldd, slidon ;

strdd, stridon ;

prdd, pridon ;

lad, lidon;

vxdd, midon;

scrdd, scridon ;

sldd, slidon;

sndd, snidon ;

prdd, pridon {d) ;

prdd, pridon ;

-grus, -grison;

rus, rison;

bide, blicon ;

sac, sicon;

suae, snicon ;

a-grise, -grist, -grist ;

rise, riseSt (rist), rised (rist) ;

blice, blic(e)st, blic(e)d (p) ;

sice, sic(e)st, sic(e)d (p) ;

snice, snic(e)st, snic(e)d (p) ;

strice, stric(e)st, stric(e)d (p); strdc, stricon;

spice, spic(e)st, spic(e)d (p) ; spdc, spicon;

pice, pic(e)st, pic(e)d (]J) ; pdc, picon ;

hnige,hnig(c)st(hst),hnis:(e)d} , ^, , v , .

(hd);

^^ '

"^hnah(g), hmg

mige, mihst, mihd; mdh, migon ;

sige, sihst, sihd; sail, sigon;

stige, sfihst, stihd; stdh, stigon ;

Takt. Past.

spifen,

spipen,

biten,

fliten,

hniten,

sliten,

smilen,

ppiten,

pilen,

pliten,

priten,

biden,

ciden,

liden,

gliden,

gniden,

hliden,

riden,

sliden,

striden,

priden,

liden,

miden.

(sweep,(turn.

spew.bite,

(flitc,

(strive.

butt.

slit.

smite.

cut off.

(see, visit,

umpute.look.

write.

bide.

chide.

grow.

glide.

rub.

cover.

ride.

slide.

stride.

bud, grow.sail.

hide.

scriden(d), go.

sliden,

sniden,

priden,

priden,

-grisen,

risen,

blicen,

sicen,

snicen,

stricen,

spicen,

picen,

hnigen,

slit..

cut.

wreathe.

bud, grow.dread.

rise.

shine.

sigh.

sneak.

go, streak.

deceive.

yield.

nod.

((miuffo),miffen, k

^ ° '

*(water.

sigen, sink.

stigen, ascend.

THIED CONJUGATION.—VAEIATION. 105

p'tge , pihst, pthd ; pah, pigon ;

like, Uhie)st, lih{e)d (y) ; Idh {ed) {lag), Itgon ;

sihe (seo), sih{e)st, sih{e)d; sdh, sigon (Ji) ;

iihe {ted), tikst {y), tihd{y) ;tdh {ed), {tigon?) ;

Jnhe, pihst, pihd ; pdh {])dg,}d:h) ,

pigen.Itgen.

fight.

lend, give.

sigen{h), strain.

tigcn, accuse.

-I{Peo, ^ 206)

prthe, prihst, prihd; prdh, prigon ;

{ {preu, ^ 20G)prigcn, i

^-^ *

( cover.

Add spine, swoon ; sntpe, snow ; prife, thrive 1 sci-ie, shriek.

206. TlIIKD COXJUG'ATION, -y/ U.

Ablaut (m(i/); ed,u; u)^{e6{{i); cd,u; o) ; iu^io~^eo, m>o, a-um-

laut (§^ 32; 38,2); ea>c, shifting {^ 41); eo>y, M>y, i-umlaut {^ 32).

Ormulum ablaut (e, (m) ; &, u; o), Old English {e, {u) ; e, o or e; o), En-

glish {ee, ea, ob, u; ee, e, o, o; o, b, ee, e). The imperfect becoming like

the present by the shifting of eo'^e and ed'^e, is distinguished anew by

conforming with the 6 of the participle, by shortening its vowel (e, 5), or by

taking a weak ending : seethe; seeth-ed,sbd; seeth-ed, sodden ; cleave; clove,

clef-t ; cloven, clef-t; choose; chose; chosen; 5(7/?, weak. ^^25,200.Variation of consonants, § 194.

creope, cryp{e)st {ed), cryp{e)d > ^

{eo){p){ I creap,crupon;

dreope, drypst, drypd {p) ; dredp, drupon ;

geope, gypst, gypd {p) ; gedp, gupon ;

slupe,slyp{e)st{u),slyp{e)d{u){p)\ sledp, slupon ;

cropcn, creep.

dropen, drop.

gopen, take up.

supe, sypst, sypd {p) ;

cleofe, clyfst, clyfd;

dufe, dyfst, dyfd;

scufe, scyfst, scyfd {ft) ;

hreofe, , ;

leofe, lyfst, lyfd;

reofe, ryfst, ryft;

breope, brypst, brrjpd;

cedpe, cypst, cypd;

hreope, hrypst, hrypd ;

preope, pnjpst, prypd;

seap, supon ;

cledf, cliifon ;

deaf, dufon ;

scedf, scitfon ;

dissolve.

sup.

cleave.

dive.

shove.

leaf, lufon ;

redf, rufon ;

bredp, brupon ;

ceap, cupon ;

hredp, hrupon ;

J)redp, prupen ;

bredte, bryt{e)st (eo), bryt {ed) {eo) ; brcut, bruton ;

fleote, flytst, flyt ;

geote, gytst, gyt ;

gredle, gryt{e)st, gryt ;

hleote, hleotest {hlylsl), hlyt;

hrute, hrytst, hryt ;

Kite, lytst, luted {lyt) ;

neote {lo), nytst, neotcd {nyt) ;

redte, rytst, redted {ryt) ;

sceote, scytst, sceoted {scyt) ;

spredte, sprytst, spryt ;

feat, fiuton ;

gedt (e), guton ;

great, gruton ;

Meat, hluton ;

hredt, hruton;

ledt, luton ;

neat, nuton ;

real, rulon ;

scedt (e), scuton;

spredt, spruton ;

siopen,

sopen,

clofen,

dofen,

scofen,

be-hrofen, (?)

lofen, love.

rofen,

bropen,

copen,

hropen,

propen,

broten,

floten,

goten,

gruten,

hloten,

hroten,

lotcn,

noten,

roten,

scoten,

sproten, sprout.

reave.

brew.

chew.

rue.

throe.

break.

float.

pour.

greet.

cast lots.

rustle, snore.

lout.

enjoy.

weep, cry.

shoot.

lOG TIIIIU) CONJUGATION.—VARIATION.

luDIOATIVB PBKSENT. IMPERFECT1st. 2d. 3d. Sing. Tlub.

peote, Pytst, pf/t ; J)edt, Jmton ;

d-preolc, -prytst, -prcoted {-pryt) ; -prcdt, -pruton ;

beodejio)deadest (5^(0^0, ''^o-l^^. ^^^^^

dea (byt) ; )

encode, cny{t)st, cnyt ; cnedd, cnudon ;

creode («), cry(()st, cryded cryt; credd, crudon;

Ic6de{i6), ly{t)st, lyt; ledd, ludon ;

reode, ry{t)st, ryt ; redd, rudon ;

strudc, stry{i)st, struded {slryt) ; stredd, slrudon ;

d-breude, -breodest {-bryst), -breo-'t

ded {-bryd) ; )

"

d-hude, -hyst, -hyd; -head, -hudon ;. -hoden, spoil.

hreode, hryst, hryd; hredd {d),hrudon; hrodcn, adorn.

seode, seodest (sysi), seoded (syd) ; sedd, sudon ; soden, seethe

cease, ceosest {cyst), ceased {cyst) ;ceds {c), curon ;

Part. Past.

Pwtcn, howl.

-proton, irks, loathe.

boden, bid.

cnoden, knot.

croden, crowd.

laden, grow.

roden, redden.

stroden, despoil.

-bredd, -brudon ; -broden, worsen.

drease, dryst, dreosed {dryst) ; drcds, di'uron ;

freose, fryst, fryst ;

be-greose, -gryst, -gryst ;

hrease, hryst, hryst ;

for-leose, -lyst, -lyst ;

bruce, brucest {brycst), bruced >

^{brycd {p)); i

luce, lycst, lycd {p) ;

reoce, rycst, rycd {p) ;

smeoce, smycst, smycd {p) ;

Slice, sycst, sycd {p) {c<^g) ;

freds, fruron ;

-greds, -gruron;

hreds, hruron ;

-leas, -luron ;

bredc, brucon ;

leac, lucon ;

rede, rucon ;

smedc, smucon ;

scdc, sucon ;

coren, choose.

droren, \

(mourn.

froren, freeze.

-groren, frighten.

hroren, rush.

-loren, lose.

brocen, brook, use.

locen, lock.

rocen, reek.

smocen, smoke.

socen, suck.

bow.bdge {eo), bugest {byhst {g)), biU.^

. ..

ged {byhd {g)) ; j^^'^'^ ^^^' ^"^on , bogen,

dredge, dreogest {dryhst), dreo-) , ^,/ \ , , a-

ged{dryhd); '^dreah{g),dnigon; drogen, suffer.

fledge,jleogest{yhst),fleugcd{yhd);fledh {eg), fiugon; fiagen, fly.

leoge, lyhst, lyhd; ledh{e){g),lugan; logen, lie.

smuge, smyhst, smyhd; smedh, smtigon ; smogen, creep.

jleohe{fleo),fiyhst,flyhd; plur. ") n ^, j, n a

fleod; ^fleah,flugon; flogen, flee.

teohe {tea), tyhst, tyhd{id); plur.

teod;

pea, pyhst, pyhd ;

y tedh (e) {g), tiigon ; togen, tug.

prco, pryst, pryhd;

pedh, pmgon ;

prcdh, prugon ;

, ({<bihe,2Q5)pogen, -J

^ -^ '

(thrive.

((<pAhe,205)progen,

' '

(cover.

Add »ed, strain; ico, accuse, ^ 205, Heyne ; fneose, sneeze 1

FOURTH CONJUGATION.—VARIATION. 107

207. FouiiTu Conjugation, -v/a or a.

Ablaut (a; 6, 6; a); a>ig, shifting; a>e, i-umlaut, infrequent (^ 32).

English ablaut (a; o or oo ; a) = {e; o or u; e) ; a>e, progression and

i-umlaut {^^ 38, 32); o>w, progression (^ 38): wake, ivoke, lodken; take,

took, taken. Variation of consonants, ^ 194.

ale, wl{e)st{e,a), ssl{e)d {e,a); 6l,olon; alen, shine.

gale, gwl(e)st, gml{e)d; gol, golon ; galen, sing.

fare, fxr{e)st, fxr{e)ct; for, foron; faren, fare.

stape, stwp{e)st, stsep{e)(t{p); stop, st6po?i ; stapen, step.

; ; ge-dafen, behoove.

grafe, grxf{e)st, gra}f{c)d; grofgrofon;{ll^,!2ln, \s^^^^^^^&-

rafe, rxf{e)st, rxf{e)d; ruf, rofon ; rafen, rob.

Made, hladest (hlest), hladed } n, \'' , n/ \-< , n ? /\i j.,

'

,

^ ')- hl{e)od, hl{e)odon ; nladen {a"), load.

pade,padest{j>a'st),paded{pmd); pod, podon; paden, wade, go.

ace, xc{e)st, icc{e)d {p) ; oc, ocon ; acen, ache.

l/ace, ba;c{e)st(e),bieced{e), ^191; boc, bocon ; bacen, bake.

sace, sxc{e)st, sxc(e)d (p) ; soc, socon ; sacen, fight.

tace, tmc{e)st, t3ec{e)d{p) ; toc,tocon; tacen, take.

pace, pxc{e)st, pxc{e)d (//) ; poc, pocon ; pacen, wake.

pasce, piesc{e)st, pxsc{e)d (p) ; pose {x), poscon (x) ; pxscen, wash.

draffe,drx^(e)st(hst),drxff(e)d) , -., / \ , /. , j°.,

°^ ' ^ ' °^ 'y dron{g), drogon; dragen, drag.

gnage, gmeg(e)st (hsl), gnce- -} ^,

g(e)dthd), '^

gnoh, gnogon ; gnagen, gnaw.

Add pape, thaw.

(6.) 5C-breakiug, § 33; A-breaking, § 33

; ea^y., § 32.

scie)ade,sc{e)adest{scxst),sc{e)a-"> /%/-, /\^, /\+ ^i\ , , ,,

' \iy sc(e)od,sc(e)odon: sciejaden, scathe.

ded iscxd) ; j\ / 7 \ / 7 v / 7

sc(e)ace,scie)acest(scxst),sc{e)a-^ -,^ , ^^ ,, / \ 1 1

. , ,\ Y sc(c)oc, sc(e)ocon ; sciejacen (a'), shake.ced {scxd); )

\ / ' \ / \ ' \ "

sceppe{y), scyp{pe)st, scyp{pe)d; sc{e)6p, sc{e)opon; sc{e)apen{e), create.

scafe (eaf), sc;if{c)st, scxf{c)d; scuf{eo?),scofon; scafen, shave.

leahe {led), lehst {y), lehd (y) ;

'

loh {g), logon ; leahen {lean), blame.

sleahe {sled), slehst (y), slchd (y) ; sloh {g), slogan ; slagen {x, e), slay.

pped, ppehst (y), ppehd (y) ; l)poh, pjpogon ; ppegen, wash.

peaxe, pexest, pcaxcd, pex{e)d; p{e)ox, p{e)oxon; pcaxen, wax.

Add^ea, flay.

(c.) 7i-assirailation, ay o, % 35.

spane, span{e)st, span{e)d{x); sp{e)6n, sp{c)onon ; spanen{o), allure.

slande {0), slandest {stentst),') ,.,,., ,t <^,„s

standed {stent (y)) ; |'^"^^ *'^^'" ^^ ^16). standen, stand.

108 FIFTH CONJUGATION.—VARIATION.

((?.)Stems in -ia^ § 196. Imperative in -e: spere, stepe, hefe.

Indicative Pbf.8e:nt. Imperfect

1st. '2d. 3d. SiNo. Plub. Part. Past.

sper-ie{-{i)g€), sperest, spered; spor,sp6ron; sporen, swear.

sceppe<CscaJic, ^ 207, b; sci/ppe<CsceaJie, ^ 32.

steppe i'Cstapie), step{e)st, stcp{e)d{Jj); stop, stupo7i ; stapen, step.

hebbe{a'){<.hafie),hcf{e)st,hcf{e)d; hof, kofon; hafen(x), heave.

hlchhe {<hlahie) {i, y, ea), hlchst {t,

y),| j^^. ^^. ^^^^^^^^^ ^,^ ^ j^^

hlehd{i,y); i' * ' v /. &

Add scedde, shed.

208. Fifth Conjugation.—Contract. Imperfect in eo, e {id).

(1..)Root in a + two consonants; «>ea, 1-breaking (§ 33), Um-

laut i/<ea or €<a (§ 32). English co>e, shifting (§ 41);

aid y old, progression (§ 38): fall, fell, fallen ; hold, held,

hdlden.

^Tf\tfddy^ ^^^^''^'-^'""^^^'^'^Ifoolilh/eoUon;ge-feallen, fall.

pealle,peallest {pylst), peal{l)ed {pyld) ; pe6l{l),pe6Uon; peallen, well.

pealte,pealtest (pylst),pealted (pylt) ; peolt, peolton ; pealten, fall.

fealde fealdest {fylst), /'^"^'^"^

|y,^;^, y,^;^,„

.

f.alden, fold.

h{c)alde healdest {hylsl), healdedi ^^^.^^^^ .

^^^^^^^^^ j^^j^^

{hylt) ; >

stcalde, stealdest (stylst), stealded} , /-; > . ^i; ; ,77.

, ,.\ -< " L

steoLd.steuldon; stealden, possess.{styid) ;

)

v(e)alde, pcaldest (pylst), pealded'} ^,, ^,, ,,'^^.'^ .,/

"-^ -^> peold, peoldon ; pealden, govern.

{pylt) ; >

pealce, pealc{e)st ipylcst), peal-} ^, ^, ,,,

/\^/ 7 i / 1\\ > peulc, peolco7i ; pealcen, walk.

(5.) n-assimilation, « >.o (§35).

banne, ban{ne)st {benst), '', - / \ / "x 7 " / "x j. / \ 1

, / N ^ /7 ^s r oerafn) (eo), oerawon (eo) ; oanne«(o), order./ ban{ne)d {bend) ;

j\ / v /

sparine, span{ne)st {spenst),) ' / \ , '\ 1 / /iv

.;,an(n;)rf {spend) ; I ^^'"^^^^ ^^''^' '^^'^"'"^ ^^'^ ' '^'^"'^^"' 'P=^"-

blande {0), blandest {blcn{t)d),') ,,^ 7/ /-v 77/^ 7 / /^\ 77 > / \ 1 1 j77 7\f/7 7 .\ y blend {co),blcndon{eo); olande)i{o), hlend.blanded {blent) ; )

fo {<Cfahe), fe{h)st {&), fe{h)d') r'^ , s r" r /\\

{^'fJ.fod;\'

'^'\feng {cg)Jengon; fangen

(o),|^^^^^_

infin./on; imperat. /o(A), /o<f. )

gd {<ga-gd-mi, km g&st gM,^ plur. >^.^ ^.^^ . ^^^

.

^a«; imperat. ^a, g-fla; innn. ^a?i; ).° °

gauge {o){cg), gangest (0), } . ,.^ ^ ^ . , .

ganged {oi v^gangad{o); \^^"^ ^''^ ^^' ^^>' -'''^' ^«"^^" (")' ^g«-

infin. gangan (0) ; imperat. ^a??o- (d) ; p. pr. gangende (0) {geon-

gan, k 201; gengan, weak).

FIFTH CONJUGATION.—VAKIATION. 109

^"pl^^S?'^'^^^'' ^'^^'

'^'^^^'^^^^'lheng, hengon; hangen

(o),| ^^^^

infin. Aore {<Chdhan) ; imperat. ho{h), hod. )

(2.) Root in a; i-umlaut d>^ (§ 32). English Cip^dw, pro-

gression and labial assimilation (§§ 38, 35) ; eop > ew= M, shift-

ing and labial assimilation (§§ 41, 35) : hloio, bleio^ hloxon.

spape, spdp(e)st (spsep(e)st), spdp(e)ct ) ^ ^

isp!&p{e)ct (^)) ;

^ ^j-

^pea;;, .;..o;7on ; spapen, sweep.

ge-ndpe,-ndpest{-na;pst),-ndped(-7i&pp); -neop, -neopon; -ndpen, whelm,

for-spdfe, -speefst, -spa}f{e)d; -speof, -speofon; -spdfen, drive.

hldpe, bldp{e)st (bleep(e)st), bldp(e)d ^ ,, ^ ,, ^ ,,, ,,

(hi- Mn--r\ / /» ^\/ I

lleop, bleupon ; blapcn, blow.

cndpe, cndpest{cnsepst),cndped{cn&pd); cneop,cneopon; cndpcn, know.

crape, crdpest (crwpst), crdped (crsepd); creop, creopon ; crdpen, crow.

mdpe, mdpest (meepst), mdped (m^pd) ; mcop, meopon ; mdpen, mow.

sdpe, sdpest {sxpst), sdped {s^pd) ; se6p,seopon; sdpen, sow.

jjrdpe, prdpest{pr&pst), (jrdped (pri'pd) ; preop, preopon; prdpen, throw.

pape, pdpest {pxp[e)st), pdped {p&p{e)d) ; peop, peopon ;w^-l^^g\ |

blow.

Mate, bldtest (blebtst), Mated (bliet) ; Mct{eo),blkon; bldten, pale.

hate, hdtest (Ji&tst) , hdted {h&t) ;i he{h)t (^ 159,"> ,^ ,

/ja«e (aj), passive, ^ 219. I b) , he{h)ton ; ^'

hndte,hndtest{hnsbtst),hndted{hnM);-j

, /'> hndten, knock.

sc{e)dde, sc{e)ddest, sc{e)dded; \ ^} "', [ 5c(e)a(fen, divide.

{}) strdde, strddest {stne{t)si), strdded}{strcd{eo),stre-\ ^, .,

(5<ra'0 ; .H don ; |

* '"« ^">

,.\ ^ (sccon, scionon) , .

(;) sca/ie, , ; i , ^^ r , shine.

lace, ldc{e)st{l;acst), Idced {laicdQj)); \^^„

,x ,^ > Idcen, leap.

(3.) Root ea. Syncopated forms not found in poetry.

hedfe, hedfcst {hyfsl), hcdfcd {hyfd)t ; heof, hcofon ; hedfcn, weep.

hledpe, hledp{e)st (y), hledpcd (hlypd {p) ; hleop, hleopon ; hledpen, leap.

d-hnedpe -hnedp{c)st {-hnypst), -hned-l .;,„,^ /,„,j ,^. .Unedpen, sever.

p{e)d{-hnypd{p)); )

hedpe, hedpest{hypst), heaped {hypd); hcuj), hcopon ; hcdpcn, hew.

bedte,bedtest{bytst),bedted{byl)~;. beot,bcoLon; beaten, heat.

bredte, bredtest (jbrytst), bredted (bryt) ; 5reo<, breoton ; bredten, break.

^e-.cea<e, -scedtest {-scytst), sccdted I .^^^^. _^^^. ^^,1 ^^

(-5cy/);^ . .

-^

dedge, dcds[{e)st (dyhst), dcds;{e)d ) j " j ^ t ^„^„ ;i„„/.-> ^x /,,\ r deoi^, deo2;on ; deas^en, dye.(,dygd){hp)- ^

o' a

110 SIXTH CONJUGATION.—VARIATION.

(4.) Root ae> English ce, shifting (§ 41).

Indicative Present. Impekfeot1st. 2d. 3d. SiNo. Pluk. Pakt. Past.

sid'pe {a,c), slivp{c)st, shep{e)d; slcp, slcpon ; slijbpen, sleep.

grwtc, gr:L't{c)st, gnit{ed) ; gret, grclon ; gr&ten, greet.

iMe, l&t{e)st, lM{ed) i^) ; \Ut\fto^^'^^' ^'''''

}^'-S'^"' '^t.

on-dr&dc, -dr&(t)st, -dnvded > j ^ , > , .. ,v , ^ , , , , , ,

(j..-,f\. \ -dreord{-drcd),-dredon; -drmden, dread.

rM{e), nvd{c)st {r&{t)st), rx- ) (.reord (^ 159, h), red ned) ., ,

ded {rM) ; S l(M.Gloss.), reordon (?);['

(5.) Root e > English ee, shifting (§41).

{hrepe, hrep{e)st, hrcp{c)d ; hrcop, hreopon; hrepen)? cry.

pepe, pep(e)st, ptp{e)d; peup, peopon ; pcpcn, weep.

(0.) Root 6 ;i-umlaut 6>c {% 32). English eop > eio (§ 208, 2) :

groio^ greio, groicn,

hrope,hr6pest (hrepsl),hr6ped{hrepd{p)); hreup, hreopon ; hropen, cry.

Iipope, hpopest{hpepst),hp6ped{hpepd{p)) ; hpeop, hpeopon ; hpopen, whoop.

lilope, hlopest (blepst), blopcd (blcpd) ; hlcop, bleopon ; blopen, blow.

Jlope, Jlopest {Jicpst), Jlopcd (flcpd) ; fledp, fieopon ; jlopen, flow.

grope, gropest (grepst), groped (grepd) ; greop, greopon; gropen, grow.

Mope, hlopest (hlepst), Moped {hlej'd) ; hleop., hleopon ; Mopen, low.

rope, ropeSt {repst), roped (repd) ; rcop, reo{po)n ; ropen, row.

spope, spopest (spepst), spoped{spepd) ; spcup, speopon ; spopen, speed.

blole, blotest (bletst), bloted (blel) ; bleot, bleoton ; bloten, \ n

{\) prole, protest {prelst), pr6tcd{prel); preot, preolon ; protcn, root.

spoge, spogest (spehst), spogcd(spe/td); <'

_*''-'

r spogen, sough.

209. Sixth Conjugation.— Stem in -ia. Weak.

No ablaut. Certain verbs, having their -ia syncopated in the imperfectand past participle, drop their umlaut in those forms. The imperative sin-

gular of these verbs has umlaut without gemination, and the ending -e

(^ 188, b). The imperfect singular second person is often found in -es

(^ 166, a).

V'a.

(a.) Theme in cg<^gi, compensative gemination (^ 188, b). Order of

vowels, (e; a?, ^b; s); a >e, i-umlaut (^^ 32); a >cT, shifting (^ 41) ; mg'^^. eg>e, §37,2.

lecge, leg{e)st {hst), leg{e)d (hd), } Lrgde (e), ) Lrgdon (e), ] ge-lsegd {e),\,

Y>]nr. lecgad; Uedc, Uedon ; S geled, i^'

SIXTH CONJUGATION.—VARIATION. msecge {a>), seg{e)st (a?) {eg), seg{e)ct

"]swgde (e),") sxgdon {e),\ swgd,\

{se){cg),-p\\iT:.secg{e)ad{te). Jm- 1 s&de, > saidon ; ) said, )^'

perat.5eo-e(a;),plur. secg{e)ad{a'). >

For sagdst, sagud, saga, see sa-\

(b.) Theme in cc<Cci, U<^li, compensative gemination (^ 188, Z»). Or-

der of vowels, (e; ea,ea; ea); a>e, i-umlaut {^ 32); a^ea, ^-/-breaking

(^ 33); cd'^ht, ^ 189, c. English vowels, (e; u; 5); fa>a (OrmuIum)>6, progression {^ 38) : sell, sold, sold.

cpelle, cpel{e)st, cpel{e)d; cpeal-de, -don ;-j

'^,

^'> kill.

dpelle, dpel{e)st, dpel{e)d; dpeal-de,-don(dpelede); \j

'

> err.

felle (y< ea, ^ 32),fel{e)st,l ^ ^ .

.,^. . Sfeald, \

fel{e)d,fyllest,fyllcd; ^ J^ai ae, aon^yLde) ,

(y^;^,^^ jtell.

selle (y = t<Ciea,(s 32), se-\ ,-.,,, ,, ^ i,s •

lestiy, i), selediy, i) ; I '^'^""^-^'^ "^^'^ ' ^'«^^' ^^'^"^ Sivc

u-stelle, -stelest, -stel{l)ed ; -steal-de, -don ; -steald, station.

telle, teleSt, teled; teal-de, -donitelcde); -{ ^ , ,'- \ }| \^ "^

iteled{se),) [couni.

cpecce,cpec{e)st,cpec{e)d{p); {Ji)cpeah-te,-ton{cpehte); {^)cpeaht,y^,

drr{n)lit, vex.drecce, drec(e)st, drec(e)d } , , \ , ,

U^;^luT.drece{e)ad; \ dre{a)h-te, -ton;

lecce,lec{e)st,lec{e)d{p)\ leoh-te, -ton (caf e); hoht{c), leak, wet.

recce, rec{c){e)st, rec{e)d{p) ; reah-te, -ton (a, cT, c) ; rcaht, rule.

slrecce, strec(e)st, strec(e)d} ,/m, , .j^ ,^1.. , y stre{a)h-te, -ton ; streaht, stretch.

l>ccce, ])ec{e)st, pec{e)d{lj); pe{a)h-tc, -ton; pcaht, thatch.

peace, pec{e)st,pec{c){e)d(p); pe{a)h-te, -ton; pe{a)ht, wake.

precce,prec{e)st,prec[e)d{])); preh-te,-ton {ea?) pre{a)ht, wake.

(c.) Theme in a nasal {nc,ng). Order of vowels, {e; o,o; o); a^c,i-umlaut (^ 32) ;

a >o, nasal assimilation ('^35). English order, (i; ou; ou);

I comes from bringan (^ 201), pincan (^ 211); o'^ ouz=au, progression

(i^ 38) : bring, brought, brought.

brenge, breng{e)st, breng{e)d{cp); broh-te, -ton ; hroht, bring.

l^ence, pene{e)st penc{e)d{p),}_^^^^ ^^^.^^^^

lA\xt.penc{e)ad; )^ ' / >

210.— V6.Theme in c; cd'^ht (^ 189, r). Order of vowels, (e; o,o; o); o>e,

i-umlaut {^ 32). English order, (ec; ou; ou); ou=:du, progression (^38):

seek, sought, sought.

rece, recst, recd{})), recced; roh-te, -ton; roht, reck.

112 IRREGULAR VERBS.—VARIATION.

Indicative Pkessnt. Impeefect1st. 2u. 3d. Sing. Pluu. Tart. Past.

sece, secest, sccccf, plur. scc{c)a(/,'\ suh-tc, -ton; suht, seek.

subj. plur. sec{e)an (ai, co), part.-

pres. sec{c)ende.i

211.— Vu.Theme in a guttural (5-, c); cgd'^ht, ncd^ht (^ 194, a). Order of

vowels, {{11)1/(1); o,o;o); M>y, i-umlaut (^32); y>z, shifting or bad

spelling {^ 41); M>Goth. au^o, A-r-breaking (^ 33). English order,

(y; ou; ou) \ y {i)yy = ai, o^ou= du, progression (^38): bu^, bought,

bought.

bycge{t) {<C_buirie, (s 188, b), bys^est,} , ,. , , ,

byo-ed;

'^' ^* ^

'^boh-te, -ton ; boht, buy.

hycs;e (/), hiis;est, hygeit, plur. hyc-} , , , , ^ , / ^ . ,

g{e)a't;

-^* ' ^* ' ^ ^\ hog-de, -don; ge.hug6d{o), mind.

{hoh-te is not found. Conformation with the common weak forms led

to hogde'^hog-ede, -dde, -ode, and finally to a present hogie.)

hynceh), /jync{e)st{i), Jwnc{e)d{i)} , , , , , ,

(/), plur:yc(V/'

lM-te,-ton; ge-Jmht, seem.

pyrce {eo,i,e), pyrc{e)st{e), pyrc-\ / \7 , , ,, ,

{e)d{i), plur. pyrc{e)ad; \ por{n)h-te,-ton; ge-porht, work.

212. IRREGULAR VERBS.

I. PRiETERiTivE PRESENTS.—The Completion of certain acts is the be-

ginning of states; perfects of verbs denoting such acts get to be used as

presents denoting the states: Sansk. ve'da, Greek foi^a, Ang.-Sax. /ai, 7have seen > / know. About a dozen such verbs are common to the Teu-

tonic tongues. They retain antiquated personal endings and other forms,

have peculiar syntactical relations, and the original notion of their verb has

often given place to a varying modal force, in which case they become aux-

iliary verbs. The old presents are obsolete. New weak imperfects are

formed.

\/ vid, see. Parent Speech, perfect vi-vaid-{m)a, plur. vi-vid-masi (^ 166).

Sanskrit.

IRREGULAR VERBS. 113

new present. It may be varied by umlaut, or other assimilation. The per-

sonal endings have all the variation mentioned in ^^ 165, 166, 170 : mag-um,

-un, -on, -en, -c, -an ; meahtes. In canst, gemanst, dhst, -t is strengthened

to -st (^^ 50 ; 40, 1). The grammars give unne, cunne, durre, purfe, age,

duge as regular indie, pres. sing. 2d ;but their examples are subjunctive.

First Conjugation.—V^i

megan, beneohan, innan, cmnan, ge-minan, scelan, deorran<^deorsan (Goth, dair-

san), peorfan, not found.

Indicative Sing.

_ 1st & 3d. 2d. Plur. Subjunctive. Imperat. Infin. Part.

(6?i99'20oi"!'"^°''"^^^*''^'^'""'oO« («)(«) ; m&g-e,-en;

; mag-an(u); ;

Imperf. meah-te{i),meah-ion{i); -te,-ten; am strong, (may),<have grown.

Pres. (^199). he-neah, ; be-mtgon; beniig-e,-en; ; benugan? ; ;

Imperf. be-noh-te, -ton {^2\\); -te,-ten; hold and use<have come to.

Pres. (^201). cn(o), ; unnon; unne, -en; ; unn-an ; (ge)unn-en ,-

Imperf. w-rfe, -f^on (Goth.^ irregular), ^37; -de, -den; favor<have given.

Pres. (^201). can (o), canst (o); cunnon ; cnnne,-en; ; cunn-an; ;

Imperf. cu-de, -don (Goi\i. kunpa),^Zl; -de, -den; knovv<have got. cude.

Pres. (^201). ge-man{o), -manst ; -munon; -e,-en; gemun,-ad; gemun-an; ;

Imperf. gc-mimde, -don; -de, -den; remembcr<have called to mind.

C scul-€ en "^

Pres. (^203). sc(e)al(sceT), sc(e)alt; scul-on(eo); < ,

'

\.\ '> sculan; ;

Imperf. sc{e)ol-de iio), -don; -de, -den; 6liall<ouglit<have got in debt.

Pres. (^204). d{e)ar, d{e)arst ; durr-on; -e,-en{y); ; durran; ;

Imperf. dors-te, -ton (Goth, daurs-ta) ; -tc, -ten; dare<have fought.

FTes.{^20l). pic)arf,p{e)arf-t; purf-on; purf-e, -enQ/y, ; purf-an ; ;

Imperf. porf-te, -ton; -te,-ten; need< have worked (opus est).

Second Conjugation (^205).—V^i igan,not found,pitan,^ 205.

Pies. ... ah, dhst; agon; ag-e,-en; ; dgan, -ne ; dgendc ;

Imperf.. dh-te, -ton; -tc, -ten; own<have earned or taken.

ndh:={ne-{-dh), &c., not own.

Pres. ... pat, past (u:) ; piton; pit-c,-en; pit-e,-ad; pitan(ij)-ne; piten,-de ;

c pis-se, -son,'",

*^^36,3:35,M V "'i know<have seen.

I ( -ten. -sen : )

, pestar

Fies. ... ndt{—ne-{-pdt),nj/ton(c); nyt-e,-en; ; nitan{tj); nyten,-de;

Imperf. nyste,nysse ; nyston {&c.); not know.

Cpis-se,-son,^Imperf.. pis-te{y), -ton;

j^^36,3; 35,

J { _^^^ J^^ .jknow<hs

IB, pestan; 3' '

Third Conjugation (§206).—

-y/u; </(/^aw not found.

Pres.... dcdhig), ; diigon; dug-e,-en; ; dugan ; dugende ;

lm])erL. doh-tc, -ton {^2\l); -te,-ten; is fat<has grown.II

114 lUUEGULAli VEKn?>.

Fourth Conjugation (^ 207).— V a ; matan not found.

Indicative Sing.

1st & 3d. 2d. riur. .''ubj. Imp. Infill. Part.

Pres. ... mot, most; moton; mot-e,-en; ; molan;

Imperf.. mos-te, -ton (^ 36, 3) ; -tc, -ten; is nicet<lias met.

Grimm takes bco, be, for a praeteritive present from a buan, to dwell, of

the Fifth Conjugation.

From an imperfect subjunctive of the Second Conjugation (Goth. viljau<C

y ft/, inflected like ncmjau, ^ 171) arise

Vxes. ... piUc, pilt ; pillad{y)\ j>ill-e,-e7i; -c,-ad; pill-an; -ende;

Imperf.. pol-dc, -don (Goth, vilda) ; -de, -den ; will<[have wished.

Pros.... nclle,nelt; neUad{7/,i); -e, -en ; -c,-ad; -an; -ende;

Imperf.. 7iol-de, -don, &c. ne-{-piUe, will not.

pi'^po, assimilation {^ 35, 2, a) ; 2>r, a-umlaut ; pi^y, ^^ 32,23 ; //>/.

213.—II. Verbs without Connecting A'owel (Relics of Sanskrit 2d

Class, ^ 158) :

(I.) The common forms of t!ic substantive verb are from three roots:

'\/ as, ^Z bhti, y/ vas.

\fl-) Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. O. Sajcon. Anglo-Saxon. O.Norso.

Stem, as, s eo- cs, s is, s is, s is, ir, s ; ar er

Sing.— 1. as-mi el-iii^etr-nt *s-u-m i-m<ls-m eo-m ea-m e-m<er-m2. fis-(s)i ia-ai, £1 es- is- ear-t er-t

D. as-ti ea-Ti es-t is-t is-t is- . er-

Plue.—1. *s-mas ia-^iv *s-u-mu3 *s-in(l *s-ind(on) ear-on er-u-m2. *s-th4 ka-re es-tis *s-ind *s-iud(on) ear-oa er-u--5

3. *s-auti £-uai, c-lffi "s-uut Vind ''s-iod(uD) *s-ind(on) ear-on er-u

As'^s, compensation, gravitation {^^ 37, 38) ;as >25, precession (^ 38) ;

ys<j.s, bad spelling ; 5>r, shifting (^ 41, 3, h) ; irm'^ (corm)^ eom, arm'^

(earm) cam, breaking (^ 33); second person -5 and -t (^ 165); nt^nd,shifting {^ 19), nt is often found. Scond-on, -tin (le, y), u-umlaut? (^ 32) ;

-on in earon (O. Norse cr-u-ni) (^ 1G6, a) ;in sind-on, a double plural throurh

conformation (^ 40) ; aron, earon, are rare in West Saxon.

The subjunctive (Sansk. *s-jd-m, Greek i*-'h]-v, Lat. *s-ie-m'^sm, Goth.

*s-ija-u, O. II. Ger., O. Sax., Ang.-Sax. *s-l, O. Norse *s-e) is inflected

like the imperfect given in ^ 171. Anglo-Saxon has also si^sig (dissim-

ilated gemination, ^ 27) '^ste, seo (a peculiar progression, ^ 25) >sy (bad

spelling); so plur. stn, sjen, seon, syn. The subjunctive often has the force

of an imperative, and is given as the imperative in .^Ifric's grammar.

(i.) -y/ hhu, be. Sansk. hhav-dmi, Greek (pv-w, Lat. fu-i, correspond in

form to Goth, hau-an, Ang.-Sax. hu-an, dwell. From the same root are

found forms without a connecting vowel in Ang.-Sax., O. Sax., O. H. Ger.

In O. Sax. are only hiii-m, bi-st; in O. H. Ger. pi-m, pi-s,—

, plur. pi-rumes,

pt-rut, pi-run {r<^s<i-\/as). Ang.-Sax. has beo-{m) (id), bi-st (y), bi-d (?/),

plur. bead (io), and a present subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive, with the

IRREGULAR VERBS, 115

common endings ; eo'^y^y'^i, umlaut, precession, and shifting (^^ 32, 38,

41). Sing. 3d ^eo£? occurs (conformation).

(c.) -y/ vas'^vis (ablaut) is inflected in the First Conjugation, ^^ 199, 197,

but the present indicative forms are so rare that they are not given in the

grammars.

Paradigms for Practical Use (pp. 84,90,91).Present :

Sing.— indicative. Subjunctive. Imperative.

ic eom, be6{m) ; si, beo, pese ;

SI, beo, pese ; beo, pes ;

SI, beo, pese ;

Infinitive. Participle.

J/u eart, bist ;

he IS, bid;

Plur.—pe sind{on),beod; sin, beon, pesen ;

ge sind{on),.beod; sin, beon, pesen ; beod, pesad;lit sind{on),bc6d; sin, beon, pesen ;

beon,

or

pesan ;

pesende.

Imperfect :

Sing.—ic pxs ; pizre ;

pu p&re ; psbre ;

he pxs ; pxrc ; ge-pesen.Plur.—pe, ge, hi pseron ; p&ren ;

The negative ne often unites with forms beginning with a vowel or p:neom = ne -\- eom ; nis ; nxs ^ne-\- pxs, p. p. nxrende <C ne pxrende, etc.

(2.) -y/ dha, place : Sansk. da-dhd-mi, Greek ri-Oij-fii, Goth. —,O. Sax.

do-n, O. H. Ger. tuo-n, do. Anglo-Saxon imperfect from reduplicated theme

dad; a^-x (ablaut, § 199) '^y'^i, irregular weakening. ^ 168.

Indicative Sing. Plur. Subj. Imperat. Infin. Participle.

Pres. .. do, de-st, de-d; do-d ; do, -n ; do, -d ; do-n; do-?ide.

Imperf. did-e{y),-cst,-e ; -on{:r); -c{x),n; do-n, de-n.

(3.) '[Z ga, go : Sansk. g'i-gd-mi, Greek /3i-/3jj-/zt, Goth, gaggan, O. Sax.

gd-n, O. H. Ger. gc-7i. Imperfect from -y/i (Sansk. e'-mi, Greek d-fii, Lat.

t-rc, go, ^ 158, a)>Goth. i-ddja, weak form strengthened.

Pres. .. gd,gx-sf,gx-d; gad; gd,-n; gd,-d; gd-n;

Imperf. eo-de, -dcst, -de; -don (^37) ; ge-gd-n.

From the same root are the nasalized forms gangan, imperf. geong, geng,

gieng (^ 208, b) ; geongan (§ 201) ;and gengan, imperf. gengdc.

214. Reduplicate Presents (Relics of Sanskrit 3d Class, ^ 158) :

gangan <,y/ga > ga-gd-mi, go (^ 213) ;so hangan, standan, ^ 210).

215. Stems in -ia of strong verbs (Relics of Sanskrit 4th Class, ^ 158) :

fricge, inquire, etc. (^ 199) ; speric, swear, etc. (^ 207, d).

11(5 IRREGULAK VERBS.

216. Stems with n inserted (Relics of Sanskrit 7th Class, ^ 158) :

fo<,fdhcy {fd{n)gan), fcng, etc., catch {^ 208, b).

ga{}i)ga)i<Cga-ga, go (^ 214).

ho< hdhc> {hd{n)gan), haig, etc., hang (^ 208, b).

sta{n)dan, stod, etc. (^ 207, c).

brc{n)gan, hrohte, bring; J)e{n)can, polite., think ; py{n)can, puhte, seem

(^^ 209, c,- 211).

217. Stem in y/ Artia (Relic of Sanskrit 9th Class): frignan, ask

(^ 202), shows itself of this formation in Gothic, but is consolidated in An-

glo-Saxon.

218. Relics of Reduplication(»5» 159, i) : hdlan, cd.\\, heht ; Idcan,

leap, hole (^ 208,2) ; l&tan, let, leort; ondr&dan, dread, ondreord; nvdan,

rede, reord (^ 208, 4) ;and see ^214.

219. Relic of Passive : hdtan, call, is called (^ 208,2) ; passive indie,

pres. sing. 1, hdt-te {&), I am called; 3, hdt-te, he is called. Imperf. sing.

1,3, hdt-te ; plur. hat-ton. Hdtte^^ Gothic haitada: -te, Goth, -da (baira-

da), Greek -rat (<psp£-rai), Sansk. -tc (bhdra-te) <^ta-tiy>Fa.rent Speech -tai

(bhara-tai). Compare t^i163 : (2J>a>e, precession, § 38

;i> rf, shifting,

§ 19 ; it?> tt, assimilation, § 35, B.

220. Verbs with Mixed Ablaut : drepan, strike, p. p. drepen and

dropen (^ 199) ; bregdan, braid (^ 202) ; .s^eZ^an, swallow {^ 203) ; sthan,

seon, strain ; tthaji, teon, accuse; Jnhan, peon, grow ; prihan, preon, cover

(^^ 205, 206) ; but these eight last should be treated as separate verbs.

221. Verbs with Mixed Strong and Weak Forms : Jinde, find, im-

perf. /an«? QXiA funde {^ 201); iwaji, inhabit ; imperf. bu-de ; p. p. g-eiw-ra ;

buian, bugian, biipian are other variations; cidan, ciiide, cad, cidde.

222. Verbs with Mixed Weak Forms in -ia and o {^^ 160; 165, d;

183). The same theme often has forms from both stems;but they are best

given under diflferent verbs :

Theme Z;/ has imperfects lif-de «stem lifia) and lifo-de (y, eo) «stemlifo). Hence two verbs, libban<^lifian by compensative gemination {^ 188,

b), and lifian like lufian (^ 183).

With libban are put indie, pres. {libbe, plur. libbad, not in Grein) imperf.

lifde, lifdon.

With lifian, pres. lif(i)ge, leofdst, lifdd {eo,y), plur. lif-iad {-igad, -gad,

-igead) ; imperative leofd; p. p. lifiende ; imperf. lifode (y, eo). The z of

ia has its usual variations in the infinitive and participle {ig, ige, ge, g),

§ 175 ; i^eo, a-umlaut, ^ 32.

Hahban (<t), have, <^hafian, has, besides full forms from -ia, indie, sing. 1

haf-a,-o,-u; 2,.haf-ast; 3,haf-dd; imperative Aa/'d. For other forms,

see pages 84, 85, 86.

IRREGULAR VERBS. 117

Secgan, say (^ 209), has sagdst, sagatt, saga to put with a sagian ; so

tcllan and talian, tell {^ 209) ; hycgan and hogian, mind (^ 211), etc.

223. Weak Verbs with Ruckumlaut : bycge, buy, bohte, etc. {^ 211).

224. Forms disguised by ecthlipsis and the like.

(a.) Ecthlipsis of ^, h, ox p:

bregdan'^ brede, hraid ; slrcgdan'^ stredc, strow; frignan'^frine,

ask, etc., vowel e, i kept short by ablaut (^ 202) ; lecgan, lay, im-

perf. legde^lede ; sxgde'^s&de, said, etc. (^ 209); sjngian, be si-

lent, sptgad^ spiad, etc. ; bogan> bod, boasts.

fo<ifdhe, catch; ho<ihdhe, hang, etc. {^ 208, b) ; seu<^sihe, etc.

(§ 205) ;and many others, strong and weak.

gerpan {ie, y, i, ea, a?), equip ; imperf. gyrede, p. p. gegyrped, gyred,

serpan (y), contrive; indie, pres. plur. syrpad, syrepad; imperf. syr-

p{e)de, syr{e)de (e) ; p. p. gesyrped.

{b.) DissiMiLATED GEMINATION : p^up'^cp (^ 117); {i^tg^ige,regular, ^ 183); syrepad <C syrpan, contrive; gefrxtepod <igefrxtpian,adorn. ComT^d.xe poruhte<^porhtfi<^pyrcan,'woxk (^211).

(c.) Assimilation: po^u; pi'^u; pperan, weld, p.p. gcpporen^ge-puren {\ 200) ; spigian (y), be silent, imperf. si/gode, sptgodc (^ 224, a).

(d.) Shifting oif,p to u: begrauen<ibegrafen<^grafen, grave (^207);

bi-pdune <^pdpen<ipdpan, blow (^ 208, 2).

(e.) Interchange of g, i, and p : (h and g regular (^^ 197, 118)) ; buian,

bugian, bupian, inhabit (^ 221) ; herian, herig(e)an, herpan (y), blaspheme;and many more. For scon, see, seah, ssbgon, (ge)sepen, ^ 197.

(/.) Metathesis: frignan^fringan, ask (^<^ 201,202) ; gepruen<Cge-

pperen, weld (^ 200), etc.

225. lsrOETHUMBKlA:N-.— INFLECTION.— Indic. pres. sing. : l,-o; 2,

-est; 3, -cd'^ -cs ; plur. -at?> -as. Subjunctive: sing. -e; plur. -en>-e.Infinitive : -an (rare) >-a>-aj>-e. Imperfect plur. -un, -on drops 7i be-

fore a subject ivoe (pe), we, or gie (gc), ye, and -u, -o may go to e or i.

Variation.—The vowels of ablaut and other variation may change as in

^ 26. The first form of ablaut {^^ 199, 200) has present ea, eo ; imperf.

sing, .r, oc, e ; plur. oe, e. The contracted imperfects (^ 208) have e, ei.

ca. Weak verbs with stem -ia {^ IGO) in the present drop i with compensa-tive gemination {^ 188, b). Stem e remains often in the imperfect, and oft-

enest in the p. p., except in verbs having ruckumlaut (^ 189, d). Stem 6

goes to a. Participle pres. often in -and.

Irregular Verbs.—(For first person -m, see § 165, a) :

T^Vosa = Ang.-Sax. pesan: Pres. indic. 1, am, eom ; 2, ard ; 3, is;

plur. aron, sind, sindon. Subjunctive, sie. Pres. indic. 1, bium

(om) ; 2, bist ; 3, bid; plur. bidon. Imperf. u\rs ; plur. woerun.

GAA= Ang.-Sax. gdn, go : Pres. indic. 1, gA (geongo) ; 2, gi&s ; 3,

g&ct; plur. gdad (gad). Imperf. edde.

118 IRREGULAR VERBS.—DERIVATION.

DdA=Ang.-Sax. don, do : Pres. indie. 1, dom (do) ; 2, does ; 3, docd ;

plur. doad {doed). Subj. do. Inipcrf. di/dc.

Wa//a = Ang.-Sax. pillan, will ; Pros, indie. I, loillo ; 2, wilt ; 3, ivil ;

plur. ivallad. Iinperf. loalde. Other forms generally agree with the

West Saxon.

226. Weathering of Inflection Endings. — (For variation of root

vowel, see ^^ 199-211) :

DEKIVATION. 119

Composition or coalescence combines two notions.

(d.) Certain notional stems used as the latter part of compounds lose their

notional force, and become in effect relational suffixes. It is not easy al-

ways to separate these from suffixes springing directly from radicles.

228. Suffixes fkom Radicles (§ 56).

The suffixes of the Anglo-Saxon nominative or present are at the left. .

Small letters above the line have dropped. Latin stems in o- are of the

second declension, and imply a nominative in -us, -urn, or -er {^ 70,).

Suffix.

1. Vowels. Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Anglo-iSaxon.

—'^<a: jug-d, yoke, Vjuff,]o'm ; ^vy-u-v; j^g-o-; juk-^s ; iuk^.

e<a(verb): hhdr-d-mi, 1 hear; (p'tp-m; fi^-o ; bair-a; ber-e.

^<-'-r^tv"te?'''i *«">«-"> >^-«-- r's^f's^^---

—'<i: «A-?, snake, •/ a^^, sin; tx-t-C ; angu-i-s ;

J "'_ \cpen^.

y f ftf-w', quick, V ok, to] , , | ac-u-s, f hand-u, V

( kand^',

( be sharp ;)

'

(needle; \ hantk, ca.teh\{ hand.

e<ja: mddh-Ja, middle; fikaaov<iyLi^-jo-v; med-io-; mid-ji-s; midd<Cmide,

a"<jan: Lat. ^f-^-iore-w, legion ;Goth. maMriAr-^a**, murderer

; Ang-Sax. murctr-a^.

;.,

_ ivid-ja, wit, Vvid,see; j uff<Ta<ifuic-ja,^ in-sid-ia,sit-^band-i, { bend^,^"^

\j^i'-r, goddess ;( voice, -/ml-; i ting in wait; (-/Jane/; (bond.

ie, 6 < aja in verb stems, see § 160.

a -.^ ^ [Zt'"'"'T"\0.U.G.n.agat.i, j '"f'^'^^'fena<ja(+na): child,<Ka.(0-c, ..^^41,^^!^ <n^^^'f,[ child; ; I maul.

2. Semi-vowels.

p'' (u, o)<va: .. e'-ra, going, V t, go ;at- fwv, time

;x-vo- ; ai-v^-s; d-p'^.

pu< vu, p' (u, o) ) f far-bu Q-jni),color

;

<vja: ) ( 6ea(f-M, battle.

„ ^ {ghar-md, heat, Vghar, \ ^ . , ^ j. n nin'*<ma: Y

' "'> 3£|0-/*o-s, not

; /or-mo- ; var-rnr ; pear-m^.

n , ((g)na-man, name, ] , . . a, ^ „ma" < man: ....{,'

( yvoti-uov-oc : (n)no-m€n: na-m,u(-man); na-ma".I Vgna, know

;;

For ma, ra, as sufDxcs of comparison, see §§ 123, 126.

f«^'-ra, field, 'v/o^, go; dy-p6-Q; ag-ro- ; ak-r^-s; ac-(e')r^.j.a 1 a ^ J.O . )

''

'

\sddyra,sea.t,V sad,—

; 'iS-pa; sel-la{d>r); sii-l^-s ; set-(e)l'^.

Here put e?-^)*, or<^i',

«r^> *, er-e {<,-ja), al^-j^, el^j^, ol'^i''',

ul^th el-e (_<C-ja').

r. (-7jpo + to), La

at. libr-dr-w-(ius'

buock-er-i (art).

J-dn, water, ( Tip

/vad, wet. I tiK-

For more of -an, see §§ 95, 105, a; for infinitive -ana, p. p. -na, § 175.

. rGr. (-rjpo + io), Lat. (^-dii+id), Goth, (-ar+ja), (Bopp gives -ar-ja<.iar-ja).

ILat. libr-dr-io-(ius'), book-man ;Goth, bok-ar-ei-s, Ang.-Sax. boc-er-e, O.H.G.

buock-er-i (art).

,j jj f«(Z-ara, water, ( rfp-£v-oe, smooth; j ^cc<-<:n, comb ;( vat-6(-in-s),{ pxt-a^.

' \V vad, -wet. I fi'/c-ov-oc, likeness;

I ec^wi-w, eater;

( water. \ pxt-e-'^^.

120 DERIVATION,

Sevii-voioels—Continued.

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Aug. -Sax.

„ ^ (svap-Tui, sleep, ) „ f soin-nu-s<, \ har-n'^, i spcf-(c)7i'^,

i V svap, sleep ;) ( sojmio-s ; I bairn

; I sleep.

, „ (phali-nd, i KtSpi-vo-c, ( fraxi-no, { silubrei-n^s, ] .,.(e)u'^: <„ . , . 1 , "1 7 1 -1 ( silfre-'nr.^ -^

Ifruit-bearing; ( cedarn;

C ashcu; I silvern; J•'

; ^ . («'?-»*', fire, 1 ~ ., •J- ( lihai-ni, i leof-(e)n\

"' < "> =

{ Vaj; i'^""-^' "''*^

' '^'""' '" '

i victuals;

I Vlif, live.

fSM-n?L son, ) . ,, . , , , f su-nu-s, ]

nu: i , ,_ C S-pjy-vu-C, stool

; wo-nii-s, band ;S

s«-nw, son.\ V 5Wj D6ur

5J (. son

^)

, , ^ /, T (" S'i-atva, goddess ;r re(7-ma, queen, ( O.H.Ger. i , „.

no ^. .A clndr-ani, In- \, ,^.

'

\ ^ , s \ . «r. avd-en"'^,

enne<a.nja:...{^^,^- /3a.«W« <reM-),^«'-f

^r^oddess!

l queen (vV<!;;); l king; (. goddess; ;

, . f Lat. (exter-no), extranco-, belonging to ( 0. H. Ger. vst-r-ijni. \ ,

erne < ar-a-nja : { ., . . / eo mo i. ion on 1 * Ieast-erne.

\ ihdX extra; (-er, §§ 122, o; 129, 2) ;( eastern; )

3. Dentals.

IFor p. p. -ta, Gotb. -da, -tha, § 175, 5; for -ta-ra, -ta-ma, -ta-ta in compar-

*^*\ ison, §126.

Here belong Ang.-Sax. -ff« (ad^, dd"; ndd"'), -d^ {od", ud^, ed% -t^ (ot^, et").

r pi-tar, father, ) 7ra-r£p-oe ; pa-ter ; fa-der; fxd-er.der, der, dl^ < \ ^p^, feed

;I ^^a, Gr. vt, Lat. «e>(needle) Jie-thla; nw-dli

'

&/ir«'-to-, brother; 0pa-7op-of ; frd-ter; hro-thar; hro-dor.

estre^ <as-ta-ra( Latin sa?-(?-as<ro-, deafish; ) o i ^ -nt) r 11.1<^ . , , Ang.-Sax. oa?c-e5<r-e"'f, female baker.

(+ an) : ( French poet-astre, petty poet ;;

,; ,;•

. {ma-ti, ravoA, \ ^ ,. .,• {myn-d'',ctS d>, ti<ti: ...J .

^, .' Miij-Ti-c; men-ti-s; mun-t¥-s;\ ". .'' (V ma-n, think

;V

( _^^^ _^»^

(sta-tii-s ; (-tu-ti, 1 ddu-ihu-s, r ded-d'^ ;

fswa-<M-TO, stand, f f acr-ri;, cit3' ; \ , ^ ,,•)•,,, I , 7 ./,

tu: < / ,^ . {\ ^ V <-tu-dm,-tu-din, < death, Iqe-hoh-i^,\ Vstka, stand

;\ (-..-.,< -r.-.,) ;

| ^^^_^.

] ^^^^^^^^_^ . ]^j^^^^^^^^_

nes^^ (nis^\ nys^*) )| gudji-nassu-s, \ gud-ne^^,

<na+as+tu: ) ( priest-hood; (goodness,

ende<ant: § 175, 3.

eg-esd'^,, , V iqan-as, genus, ),

. ( aa-is^, (

es-a°<as(+an):{'' .

'

(ytv-o-g; gen-us, -er-is ; <1 / r

< Vgen, hear;

)' ^' j ^ >

( awe; (Va^r, fear.

ere pu (_ ;'JGoth. -iza, O.H.G.-ira, A.-S. -eruy-ru in plurals ivg-ru, eggs, etc. (§82, a).

(e)ru: }7^1

els^ ) t al+ sa 1 0. H. G. fuot-isal'^, fodder;0. Norse foed-sla ,- Ang.-Sax. fed-ek^, -esl^^.

esPi (as+la)O.H. G. ra<-mZ<^, riddle; Swedish ?vcrf-eZse; Ang.-Sax. nid-ek^.

4. Gutturals.

ih^ iga<ka- /'5'*''^^^'"-^'«' Uoy<-/c(5-c, of {belli-co., oi\0^-''<^-(i-^-«,\ .^-a^

' '"

Ifrom^S'tWAu; ( %os; ( war; ( greedy; )

Here put h'^, oc^' ', uc*? i.

., . „ ^ ^^ ^ . , i steina-ka, ( stiin-ih-f^,

^^^ • O.H. Ger. .tem-oH stony; \ ^^^^^. \ ^^^^.^^

SUFFIXES.—QUASI-SUFFIXES. 121

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Ang.-Sax.

. „ . , _ ( Traic-i(jKo-Q, f scutr-isco-, ') barn-hk^-^, f ., , . ^isc'^<i(s)ka: ,.,,, , ., , / « x < ,..n w > , .,

- , -i cild-isc^.^ -^( little child (77-aic-) ;

]

little plate ;i c^^iluish

;

Syr-isco; [ Ent/l-isc'^,

[^a Syrian ; / 1^ English,

ing^<i(n)g^: 0. H.G. ec?t7-fnc<^, noble-man;A.-Sa.x. wdel-ing'^ ; Elis-ing'^,

son of Elisha.

1-ing'^ : O. H. G. junJd-linc^ ,a youth ; A.-Sax. geong-ling^ <^geong,

young.

ung\ing': O.H.G. warn-unga, wa.rmng ;A.Sax. j^carri-icng'^ (-ing^)

{pearn-ian, to warn).

iucle : Lat. Jootm-jz-cu-Zo, little house {domo-)\ O.H.G. csil-inchilin,

little ass; A.-Sax. Ms-MzcZe, little house.

For suffixes of pronouns and numerals, see ^§ 130-140;

for those of com-

parison, §^ 122-129. The endings of adverbs are mostly from case-endings.

229. QUASI-SUFFIXES FROM ISTOTIONAL STE:irs.

eern, em, house; Goth, razn, O.Norse rann : shep-ern, sleeping-room;

hors-ern, stable. Often mixed with Latin radicle suffix -ern : Lat. lat-

ern-a, lucerna, A.-Sax. hldc-ern, lant-ern;

Lat. tab-erna, A.-Sax. gxst-

ern, tav-ern ;Lat. career, A.-Sax. earc-ern, prison ;

A.-Sax. cpeart-ern,

quarters.

b^re, bearing ;Lat. -ferus, 0. H. G. pari, O. Nor. hibr : lust-hxre, lust-y,

joyous.

cund, kind ; Gr. -yev-t'ic, Lat. -gena, Goth, kunds, 0. H. G. chund : dcofol-

cund, devil-ish ; god-cund, god-like.

cragft, craft; 0. Sax. -Jcraft, O. H. G. -ehraft: stwf-crxft, (letter -craft)

grammar.

cyn, kind ; Lat. gen-us, Goth, kuni, O. Sax. kunni, 0. Nor. ki/nni, O. H.

G. chunni : treop-eyn, (tree-kind) wood; man-cyn, man-kind.

daeg, day ;Goth, dags, O. Sax. dag, 0. Nor. dagr, O. H. G. tac : gear-dxg,

(yore-days) formerly.

dom, judgment, authority, dominion ;O. Nor. -domr, 0. H. G. -tuotn, Ger.

-thum : cyning-dom, kingdom,

faest, fast ;O. Nor. -fastr, M. H. G. -vesle, Ger. -fest : dr-fxst, honorable ;

st&de-fxst, stead-fast.

feald,' fold; Goth, faiths, 0. Nor. -faldr, O. IL G. -fait : mxnig-fcald,

manifold.

ful, full ; Goth, fulls, O. Sax. -ful, 0. Nor. -fullr, 0. IL G. -fol : dr-ful,

honorable. Sansk. pur, Gr. ttXI-wc, Lat. ple-nus.

had, character, state, rank; O.H.G. -heit : hrodor-hdd, brother - hood ;

m&den-hdd, maidcn-hcad.

122 QUASI-SUFFIXES.—ABLAUT.

lieaio, .''.pvd ; Goth, hard-u-s, O. Nor. -hardr, O. II. G. -harl, O. French-ard: mx^n-heard, (might-hanl) very mighty ;

ilrunk-ard; bragg-art.

Iko, sport, gift ; Oc^.Idiks^ O. Nor. hikr, O. H. G. -Icih : fcoht-lde, fight ;

O. Eng. lovc-laih, love; know-ledge ; ped-ldc, wed-lock.

leks, loose from;

Goth. -Idus, O. Sax. -los, O. Nor. -laus, O. II. G. -laos,

-las : dr-lcds, (honor-less) dishonorable; god-lcds, god-less.

lie, like ; Goth, -leiks, O. Nor. -likr, -legr, O. H. G. -Wi : dr-ltc, (honor-like)honorable

; god-lic, god-ly. Sansk. -drk, Gr. -\ik, Lat. -lie.

mail, man; Goth, mans, O. Sax. -7nan, O. Nor. -madr, 0. H. G. -man:

glco-man, glee-man ; plf-man, wo-man.

m^l.^time ;Goth, -mcl, O. Sax. -mahal, O. Nor. -7ndl, O. H. G. -mahal,

mdl{i): undern-mskl,noon-\AmG; stijcce-mxlum, -piece-meal.

r^den (Lat. ratio), mode, fashion : freond-r&den, friend-ship ; mwg-r&den,kind-red.

red, reed, counsel, condition;O. N. -rdd, 0. II. G. -rdt : ht-red, (hive-con-

dition) family.-

rice, prince ; Goth, -rei/cs, 0. Nor. rc/cr, O. H. G. -rih, Sansk. rd'g'an, Lat.

rex : sige-rice, victorious. (2) —dom, cyne-rice, kingdom.

^ sceaft, shape, manner;0. Sax. -scaft, O. H. G. (10th century) scaft.

i scipe (y), shape, manner ;O. Sax. -scepi, O. Nor. seapr, O. H. G. seaf:

freond-scipe, friend-ship ; hyge-sceaft, mind-state ; land-seeap (scipe),

land-scape (-skip).

smid, smith; 0. Nor. -smidr, O.H. G. -smid : ptg-smid, warrior; Goth. -a.

staef, staff; O. Nor. -stafr, O. II. G. -stap : fdcen-stsef, wickedness ; dr-

stccf, honor.

sum, same, like;O. Nor. -sam'>', O. H. G. -sam : pyn-sum, winsome, joyous.

teme(y) = sum: luf-tyme,\oye\y ; hejig-ty77ie, troublesome; ppeorh-teme,

perverse.

pare, men; Goth, vair, O. Sax. luer : Rom-pare, Romans. Sansk. vir-a-s,

Gr. rjp-ioQ, Lat. vir.

peard, becoming, tending to; Goth, -vairths, O.H. G. -wert, -wart: hdm-

peard, home-ward. Sansk. vrt, Lat. vert-ere.

pis, wise ;O. Sax. -whi ; O. Nor. -vts ; M. H. G. wise : riht-pis, (wise as

to rights) righteous, -y/ viA, ^ 212.

230. New Stems pkom Vaeiation of Eoot Vowel.

Ablaut.—The vowel of the present denotes the act or an object suited to

act ;those of the past denote result, the plural being more abstract. But in

many derivatives this force is lost.

First Conjugation, (e(eo); s;{ea); &{d); e; ^199): beran (bcoran), hear,

>• beord, birth ; here, barley ; beam, child; b&r, bier, (i ; a, u ; u ; ^ 201) :

singan, sing, >5an^, song, song ; grindan, grind, ^grund, ground.

UMLAUT.—FORMATION OF NOUNS. 123

Second Conjugation, (i ; a, i; i; ^ 205) : drifan, drive, '^ draf, drove;

bttan, bite, > bit, bit; bitei; bitter ; bat, bait.

Third Conjugation, (eo(w) ; ed, u; o ; § 206) : beogan, hexid,'^bf.dn, ring ;

boga, bow ; teohan, tug, > ieam, team ; toga, duke ; tyht, c^uide.

Fourth Conjugation, (a (ea) ; 0,0; a(ea); §207): grafan, gra.ve,^ grwf,

grave ; ^/"q/", ditch ; sceapaii, shape, > scop, shaper, poet.

Umlaut.—The same stem may occur with and without umlaut or break-

ing, but this variation does not make a new word, though it may be the be-

ginning of bifurcation (§ 40,3). Since the ablaut became irregular (§ 199)

new words have been formed in large numbers by irregular bifurcation.

Suffixes aeeanged according to their Use.

Formation of Substantives.

231. Indefinite Noun-signs : u<«, —^</, —^<^jd, u, —''<a, e<ja, a.<^an, e<Can.

These combine with the case-endings {\}^ 69-95), and are abundantly used

as secondary suffixes ;

—* is found oftenest with names of actions and qual-

ities, u with names of qualities, e and a with agents.

gif-u (gif-an, give), gift. drinc'^ {drinc-an, drink), drink.

d&d^ {don, do), deed. hird-e (Goth, haird-ei-s), bird.

jnjn^^ (O. Sax. wunnia), fun. han-a'^ (-y/can, sing), cock.

mag-u {mag-an, get), son. tung-e, -an, tongue.

232. Agent.— Masculine a, end, ere, o<ija, F (e/«, oZ«, uio-), cter,

der, ter.

Feminine e<an, en"^,estre, — <ii, id, isse (Lat. issa).

Listruments and means: els^, ele, el*^, dP, or^ (cr^).

(e)n^

Quasi-suffix, smid.

dem-a {dem-an, deem), judge. myr-e, -an (mearh, horse), mare.

dem-end {dem-an, deem), judge. fix-en, enne (fox), vixen.

dem-ere {dem-an, deem), judge. sang-estre {sing-an, sing), songster.

sang-ere {sing-an, sing), singer. fcd-cls {fed-an, feed), victuals.

pin-e (V pin, love), friend. nct-ele (Vna, sew)"? nettle.

fore-rin-el {rinn-an,x\xvi), fore-run- sct-l^^, n. {sitlan, sit), settle.

ner. mt-dl^ (V^^^i sew), needle.

fx-der (-y/pa, feed), father. fod-or^ {J'kl-an, feed), fodder.

bro-der (-y/bliar, support), brother, leof-cri}' {lif-an, live), victuals.

speos-ter, f. (sva-su-tar, connected byg-els, bow ; ham-or^, hammer.

woman; -y/su, bear). /j/,g--5mic^ (war-smith), warrior.

abbud-isse, abbess.

124 DERIVATION.—SUBSTANTIVES.

233. Action.—Masculine and Neuter t^ {oic, ct"), d^ {ad, od, nad).

Feminine iiig*, uiigS \\ le*^'* (e/e, ole, ulc).

'^^\ Quasi-suffix, lac.

d-rts-t (?-w^an7 rise), resurrection.

bxrn-et {beorn-an, burn), burning.

hunt-ad (Jiunt-ian, hunt), hunting.

hunt-ud {hunt-ian, hunt), hunting.

hunt-nad {hunt-ian, hunt), hunting.

hern-ing {beorn-an, burn), burning.

bwrn-ung {bcorn-an, burn), burning.

sping-cl'' I {sj)ing-an, sconrge), scourg-

sping-elc'

ing.

bcadu-lac^ (fight-sport), fighting.

jnf-ldc, marriage.

234. Result.—Masculine m^ (eni<^, ?«?z«), ma", n^^, ct<^</zi, t^<^tu.Neuter n^.

Feminine (e)n^.

cpeal-m^ {cpell-an, kill), death.

pxs-t-m^ {peax-an, wax), fruit.

blo-maP' {blop-an, blow), bloom.

heof-en^ {hebb-an, heave), heaven.

dcd-d^ (-y/ dau, die), death.

gc-J)oh-t^ {pinc-an, think), counsel.

bcar-n^ {ber-an, bear), child.

sel-en^ {sell-an, give), gift.

235. Quality and objects named from it.—

Feminine u {o, eo), nes'^' {nis, nys), (u)d«, d^ t''.

Neuter tt^^, d^, t^, used instead of di, d^, t^ when ge- or

other prefix is used with an abstract.

Masculine ing*^-

Quasi-sufRxes, craeft, cyn, dom, had, man, r£d, rfed-

en, rice, sceaft, sceap, scipe, steef.

hvbt-u {hdt, hot), heat.

streng-u, -o, -eo, strength.

ge-ltc-nes^^, like-ness,

mild-heort-nes^^, mercy.

streng-d^, strength.

ge-cyn-d^, nature.

pit-leds-f', wit-lessness.

gyme-lys-f, heed-lessness.

geog-ud^ {geong), youth.

ge-ping-d'^, honor.

ge-cyn-d^, nature.

ge-pih-t^ {peg-an, weigh), weight.

xdel-tng^, noble-man.

liece-crivft^, m. leech-craft.

l&ce-cyn^, n. (leec!i-kind), doctors.

l&ce-dom^, m. leech-craft.

pis-dom {pis, wise), wisdom.

cild-hdd^, m. child-hood.

pcop-hdd, serf-dom.

sud-man, m. Southerner.

hi-red'', f. (hive-state), family.

fremd-raiden' ,f. friendship.

hyge-sceaff', f. (mind -state), thinking.

Ia7id-sceap, n., -scipe, m., land-scape,

dr-stwf^, m. honor. l-skip.

btsceop-rice, n., bishopric.

23G, Diminutives: c (?/ca, oc^), 1 (Z«<(t)/a),le<2^-}-a;i, ling, incle'«,

en^ <Cjd-\-na.

k (questioning; ^ 56) and 1 (trilling) are suited to express diminution.

DERIVATION.—ADJECTIVES. 125

The Sanskrit diminutive is k; Greek, w, (jk; Latin, /, c-l ; Goth., O. H.G.,I most

;Low German, k most. Anglo-Saxon words in uca, el, le are rel-

ics; ling is growing into use. The English uses ock, ling.

bull-uca"'-, bull-ock. geong-ling'^, m. young-ling.

cyrn-el^, n. (corn, corn), kernel. rdp-incle, n. (rap, rope), string.

meop-le, f. (Goth, mavi, virgin ; ma- cijc-en^, n. (coc, cock), chicken.

vilo, little girl), girl. mwgd-en^, n. {m&gd, maid), maiden.

237. Patronymics: ing^.

JElfred Mdclpulf-ing^^, Alfred son of ^thelwulf.

238. Gentiles: e<^ia, an, isc, ing^ (^ 101,2).

Quasi-suffix, pare.

Engl-e (§ 83), English. Englisc, adj., English.

Got-an, Goths. Pyr-ing-ds, Thyringians, descendants

Rom-pare, Romans. of Thyr.

239. Place : en«, ene«". Time :

Quasi-suffix, ern (wrn), etc. (^ 101). . . dsg, mal.

midl-en^, n. midst. dom-ern^, n. {dom, doom), judgment-

cyc-ene, f. (coc, cook), kitchen. hors-ern, n. horse-stable. [hall.

gedr-dxg, m. (yore-day), antiquity. undern-miU, n. noon-time.

ADJECTIVES.240. Indefinite Suffixes combining with case-endings:

—'^, u<:^a,

—^, a<^an, e<ian.

Any adjective theme may have stems in all these endings (§^ 103-114).

241. Characteristic, connoting quality of the object denoted by the

stem : isc.

Quasi-suffixes, cund, lie (with nouns).

cild-isc (cild, child), child-ish.J'^f-li''' (p'lf, woman), having the qual-

deofol-cund, (devil-kind) devil-ish. itics of a woman, womanly.

(a.) Patrial isc also connotes origin from a place or stock : Romdn-isc,Roman

; Lunden-isc, Londonish ; Engl-isc, English.

242. Fitness or disposition for the act or state denoted by the theme :

ol, or.

Quasi-suffixes, fus, lie (with verbs), sum, tyme, pis.

j;?rec-oZ(5;jrec-an, speak), talk-ativc. bealo-fus, disposed to Ja/e, wicked :

bit-or, -er {bit-an, bite), bitter. O. Nor./w^, O. II. G. funs, ready.

126 DERIVATION.—VERBS.

forgifend-lic, to be forgiven. luf-sum, disposed to love.

xin-gesepen-lic, (unseen-) invisible. lof-sum, worthy to be praised.

un-gclxrcd-Uc, (unlearned-) unlearn- luf-tpme, fitted for love.

ed. riht-pls, knowing right, righteous.

243. Fullness, connoting possession of an object denoted by the stem ;

e<y«, ig, iht, ed.

Quasi-suffixes, b^re, fasst, ful, heard, leas.

pjjnt-c (pcord, worth), worth-y. pxstm-bu^re {pxstm, fruit), fruit-ful.

stdn-ig {stall, stone), stony, abound- hlys-hwrc {lilysa, fame), famous.

ing in stones {£). dr-faast (dr, honor), honorable.

pcl-ig (pela, wealth), rich. cear-ful {cearu, care), care-ful.

sldn-iht, stony (;&). mirgeii-hcard, might-y.

ge-hyrn-ed {horn, horn), horned. ccar-leus {ccaru, care), careless.

244. Material, (e)n^ : slxn-en {stdn, stone), made of stone.

gyld-en {gold, gold), golden.

245. Place, erne : siid-erne, southern; nord-erne, northern.

peard : siid-peard, southward ; nord-peard, northward.

For Pronouns, see i^^ 130-137; comparatives and superl., ^§ 122-129.

For Numeral -feald, -ode, -tig, etc., see §^ 139-148.

VERBS.246. Strong Verb Suffixes: a, ia<ya (^^158, a; 215).

These are suffixed to a root.

nim-a-n, take ; sper-ia-n, swear; sittan<Csit-ia-n, sit.

247. Weak Verb Suffixes: ia <a;a, 6 <o;a (^ 160).

(a.) aja is a secondary suffix = a -\-ja, a belonging to a simpler word.In aja > ia, a drops ; aja > ajd ^ ady u, progression and contraction

(§^ 38, 52).

{b.) Variations : ia, iga, igea, ga, ea, a, ie, ige, ge, e,—

;

6, d, a, u, e, precession and dissimilated gemination(^§38; 27,5).

ner-ia-n, ner-e-de, save; infinitive ner-ia-n, ner-iga-n, ner-igea-n, ner-

ga-n; feg-a-n, feg-ea-n, ioin, feg-{e)-de ; indicative present ner-ie,

ner-ige, ner-ge, ner-e.

sealf-ia-n, salve, sealf-o-de, sealf-u-dc, sealf-a-de, scalf-e-dc.

247*. Infinitive an is contracted from aa. dgan, ahan ; on from d/ian,

bhan: gdn {gaan), go; smeagan'^ smedn, consider; slcahan^ sledn, shy ,

fun <ifahan, catch; gcfeon<Cgefeohan, rpjoice ; icon < ieuhan. tug.

NOTEWORTHY WEAK VERBS. 127

Noteworthy Weak Verbs.

248—I, Causatives and Transitives, relics of the Sanskrit causative.

They have the highest progression of the root (lilce the strong imperfect

singular), and i-umlaut.

CoNJ. 1.— y' a : -y/ sad, sit; Sansk. std-ami, sit, causative sdd-djd-mi,

set ; Goth, sit-an, sat-ja-n ; O. Sax. sittian, settian ; O. Nor. sit-ia,

set-ia. Highest progression, a; i-umlaut, e (^^ 199-204, 32).

sittan<^sit-ia-n, sit; imp. swt{a) ; settan<^sat-ia-n, set.

licgan<ilig-ia-n, lie; imp. la?g {a) ; lecgan<^lag-ia-n, lay.

beorn-an, burn; imp. bai-n; bern-a-n, cause to burn.

drinc-an, drink ; imp. dranc ; drenc-a-n, cause to drink.

CoNJ. 2.— V^'- V^'f) show; Sansk. causative (Zep-o/a-mj; Goth, teih-an,

tdik-ns, token. Highest progression, a; i-umlaut, & (^^ 205, 32).

lih-an, point at; imp. tdh ; t&c-a-n, teach.

drif-an, drive; imp. drdf; dr&f-a-n, disperse.

lid-an, go (by sea) ; imp. lad; hed-a-n, lead.

ns-an, arise; imp. rds ; rxr-a-n, raise, rear.

CoNJ. 3.— -y/u: -y/i/a/o-', bend; Sansk. causative bhug'-djd-mi {^ 158).

Highest progression, ed ; i-umlaut, y (^^ 206, 32) ;e often occurs.

bug-an, bow, bend; imp. bedh ; byg-a-n, cause to bend.

Jleog-an, flee ; imp. fledh ; fi/g-a-n, put to flight.

CoNJ. 4.—V^) ^- V P^^^ Sansk. causative joar-4?a-OT?) accomplish. High-est progression, u; i-umlaut, c ((^^ 207, 32) ; or, progression, a; umlaut,

e : Goth, far-an, far-Ja-n, but gal-an, sing, gol-ja-n (compare ^ 158, e).

far-an, go ; imp. for ; fer-a-n, go ; far-ia-n, carry.

/>ac-a«, wake ; imp. /'oc; />eccaw<]jpac-z'a-?2, awaken.

pac-ia-n, watch, is also found— a later denominative.

Here belong many verbs apparently formed from nouns or participles byi-umlaut of the root vowel : hyld-an, to make bent (heald) ; hyn-an, to make

lowly (hcdn) ; hrym-an, to cry (hredm) ; pyrc-an, to work (peorc) ; pyrm-

an, to warm (pearm) ; yld-an, to delay {cald, old) ; yrm-an, to make wretch-

ed {eai-m) ; ypp-an, to lay open (up) ; yt-an, to drive out {iit) ; words in

-fyld-an: prt-fyld-an, to triple {fcald, fold), etc.

249.— n. Denominatives without Umlaut, from adjectives.

Such arc oftencst neuter, but with ge- oftencst transitive.

micl-ia-n, to grow great (micel) ; ge-miclian, to make great.

litl-ia-n, to grow little ; ge-litlian, to make little.

hdt-ia-n, to grow hot (hat) ; compare hiit-an, to make hot.

pearm-ia-n, to grow warm; compare pyrm-an, to make warm.

128 ADVERBS.—NOTIONAL STEMS.

250.— III. Denominative Suffixes grown Verbals: -c-, -g-, -n-,

-S-, ettaiK^atian (^ 188, b), l^can :

hyr-c-n-ian, hark, hearken {hyr-an, hear) ; syn-g-ian, to sin; mier-s-ian,

to make more; plt-n-ian, to punish ; hdl-etlan, -etan, -etian, hail ;

sunior-ldican, summer is near.

ADVERBS.251. Adverbial suffixes are mostly from case-endings.

Notional Stems (Nouns),I. Living Case-endings, with and without prepositions: gen. es, a;

dat. a, e, um ;ace. — , ne ;

instrum. e, e; weak an.

es : dxg-es, by day ; icLvg-es, (now)-a-days ; eall-es, wholly ; micl-es,

much ; to-midd-es, amidst; neaht-es, by night ; ned-es, needs ; son-es,

(eft-)soons; /a?2C-c5, willingly; s>fter-peard-es, a.fterwa.rds; hdm-peard-

C5, homewards, a: g^cf/r-a, of yore (o-ear, year).

Adverbial -es is found with nouns having their genitive in -c : nealU-c,

ned-e, etc.; sin-neahtes, eternall3^

a, dative feminine (^ 93, i) : dcarn-ung-a, -inga, -enga, O. Sax. darn-

ung-o (^ 88, a), O. H. G. tarnunk-un ((J= Goth, o, ^ 95, c), secretly :

deorcung-a, in the gloaming ; Scotch darklings, darkling ; eallung-a,

wholly ; kvcling-a, 0. Eng. backlings, on 'the back;so O. Eng. nose-

ling, side-ling'^ sidelong (§ 40, 3), headlong, on the nose, side, head.

This is often thought genitive plural ; but feminine abstracts in -ungseldom use the plural, and they retain the old dative in -a (^ 77, i) ;

while the O. H. G. can not be a genitive plural.

um, dative plural : hpU-um, -on, whilom ; on-sundr-on, asunder; pundr-

lun, wondrously ; stycce-mM-um, piece-meal ; seld-iim, -on, -an, sel-

dom ; litl-um, little; micl-um, much.

e, e, dative and instrumental : wfr-e,e\ex; heodieg{e), to-day ; to-dmg-e,

to-day ; to-nihte, to-night ; to-ealdre, always ; inicle md, much more;

to-gxdere, together, an : to-cdc-an, moreover.

—, accusative : ham, home ; east, east

; pest, west; ealne peg, always ;

on peg, away ; on bxc, back ; on-gedn, against ; eal, all; nedh, nigh ;

hdmpeard, homeward;on idcl, in vain

; and comparatives and super-latives (^ 123). ne : eal-ne peg, always ;

sum-ne d&l, O. Eng. some

deal, somewhat.

II. Obscure Endings, a, e.

{a.) a : Goth, -a, 0. Sax. -a, O. II. G. -a, perhaps from instrumental -a

(^63,^).

{!).) The common adverbial ending from adjectives is -e : O. Sax. -o,

RELATIONAL STEMS. 129

O. Nor. -a, O. H. G. -o, Goth, -o, some say -la. Gothic -ba, -6 are prob-

ably akin to instrumental -bhi and -a {^ 63, g). Bopp thinks -6 an ablative

ending like Greek -(og<^-ojT, Latin -u and -e<C-ed, but in Teutonic the in-

strumentals have a history analogous to that of the ablative in Greek and

Latin ; the Anglo-Saxon instrumental has been kept alive by the influence

of this adverb. Grimm thinks -e a weak singular accusative neuter.

(c.) So many adverbs are formed from adjectives in -lie, that -lic-e >Eng. -ly is established as an ending ;

so Icelandic -liga, M. H. G. liche.

fel-a, much ; gen-a, again ; get-a, yet ; s6n-a, soon; tel-a, well

; feor^

{Goth, fairra), far; nedh'^ (Goth, nchva), nigh; ofi^ (Goth, vfta), oft;

j?el^ (Goth. vaila),we]l; pid-e, widely ; deop-e, dee-ply ; heage <C^hedh,

highly; ?2ear/>e<^nea?-M, narrowly ; s<ra??o--;?c-e, strongly ; sceort-lic-e,

shortly, etc., etc. For h^g, p^u, see ^^ 117, 118.

252. Relational Stems (Pronouns and Prepositions).

L Correlatives of Place :

where, whither, whence; there, thither, thence

; here, hither, hence.

A.-Sas.. hpxr, hpider, hpanan ; 7-';i''", pider., panan; liir, hider, keonan.

O.SsiK.. huar,huar(pd),huanan; thar, thar{pd'}, thanan; her, her(od), hinan.

O.H.G. hwdr,hwar-a,-ut,hwanana; dar, dar-a,-vt, danana; hiar, ker-a, -6t, hinana.

O. Nor., kvar, kvert, hvadan ; P^ar, padra, pjodan; her, hedra, hedan.

Goth hvar, hva-p, -dre, kvapru; par, padei, pjapjro; her, hidre, (Jiepru).

Greek... ttov, ttoT, tto^iv; tv^a,tv^ac(, tvBtv; Lat. 7wc, hue, citro, hinc.

Sansk... hu-tra, Icii-tra, hu-tas; ta-tni, id-tra, ta-tas; d-ira, d-ira, d-tas.

(a.) For the stem radicles (interrogative hp, demonstrativeJ), h), ^^ 135,

133, 104, 130 : lipAr, p&r (;&, x, a), Ormulum &.

<Jj.) Ang.-Saxon endings, -r, -der, -nan (-a?0 ;-d (5a?not?,Goth. sama-P)) :

-r<^ locative -77 <^ comparative -ra (^^ 120, G2) : Sansk. wj»a-n, Greek

iiTc-p, Lat. s-upe-r, Goth, ufa-r^ O. H. G. uba-r, O. Sax. obha-r, Ang.~Sax. ofe-r, over.

-der, -dcr, Goth, -drc, Sansk. -lra<C-ird, is the instrumental of a com-

parative in -ta-ra {^^ 120, 62) : some think this -tra weathers to -r in

hpxr, etc.; -d, probably comparative, ^ 255 (Sansk. samanli).

-nan, -nannc, an oblique case of the repeated adjective sufRx -?za, belong-

ing to (^ 228, 2) : Lat. super-no-, belonging (super) above;whence ab-

lative adverb supcr-nc, from above; belonging to and comingfrom are

near akin, but the lost case-ending gives the turn io from. Goth, ze-

nana, within ; utana, without; hindana, hehxnd, etc., do not have the

plain sense from. Pott suggests composition with a preposition (Let-

tisch no, from). Here belong cdst-an, from the cast; pcst-an, from

the west, etc. ; also ipft-an, aft; fcorr-an, from far; for-an, before;

hind-an, from behind; inn-an, within ; ncdn, from nigh ; neod-an, from

beneath ; vf-an, from above ; ut-an, from out, and their compounds.I

130 DERIVATION.—PREPOSITIONS AND PREFIXES.

II. Correlatives ov Time: Manner:

when ; then ;now ; once. how ;

thus ;so.

A.-S. hpanne; panne {w,o,e), J)d; nu; iu,geu. hu<^hpi ; pus,])xs; spa.

Goth, hvan; pan, {O.H.G. do; nu; ju, giu. huieo),hvdiva; svah, sve.

Lat... quum; turn; nimc ; ja77i<^S:ins\i. ja. quo-modo; tarn, ila; sic, ut.

Gr.... TzoTi; Tort; vv,7wv(Siansk.nu); v!i<i<Jjd. n-wg; rw£ ; wg.

hpannc, accusative masculine ; pa, feminine; hu, hpt, instrumental ; pus,

genitive, <^ppis, or instrumental pu-\-s, O. Sax. thiu-s (^ 133, 2);

pms, genitive ; spa, Goth, sve, instrumental ;the endings in tlie other

languages are not all analogous.

III. Prepositions =:= adverbs : ccftcr, hi, for, in, mid, on, of, to, purh,

under, up, ofer, piit, with many derivatives and compounds. See ^^ 253-

259.

IV. Derivatives in e, denoting rest in, probably a dative : Goth, -a, O.

Sax. -a, O. Nor. -i, O.H.G. -a.

inn-e, within ; ut-e, without ; ifan-c, over, etc.

V. Comparatives and Superlatives. ^^ 123-129, 2.

PREPOSITIONS AND PREFIXES.253.— I. Those denoting simple relations generally take their signifi-

cance from a single consonant {^ 50). Contrasted space relations are pri-

marily denoted. This contrast is often further brought out by endings of

comparison (^^ 122-129). The relation is sometimes made more definite

by case-endings and other suffixes. Most inseparable prefixes have a sim-

ilar etymology.

II. Many prepositions and prefixes of later growth are from nouns or

verbs, and have an etymology like adverbs.

254. Prepositions and prefixes with a single consonant. A few others

are added to better illustrate their etymology.

1. Semi-vowels. Sanskrit. Greek, Latin. Gothic. O. Sax. O. Nor. O. II. G.

a-(^), privitive: ... dvisyas? t^? ex? see or; d- ; er- ; d<,ar-.

OX- — d: dvisy^us? ; ;2is- ; ; ur,dr-; ur-.

ea-C, besides : dva; av-(jiQ);

;du-h ; o-h ; au-h; au-h.

pid, agamst, -with : ot, seeto; ; vi-, ve- ; vi-pra ; wi-d; vi-ct; lei-dar.

ne, n-, negative: .. na; I'jy- ; ne, ne ; ni ; ni, ne ; we; ni, tie.

an (on, d-), on : and; dvd; an-; ana; an; d; ana.

and (pnd,(jd),a.n-: dn-ti; dv-ri; an-ie; an-d; an-d;-t; an-d; an-t.

in, in, on: and, an-; tw, iv; in; in; inna; mn,i; in.

un-(w»), vin-: an-, a-; uv-,d-; in-; un-; un-; d-; un-.

PREPOSITIONS AND PREFIXES. 131

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. O. Sax. O. Nor. O. H. Ger.

mi-d, with : mi-thas; /.te-Tci ; ; mi-p; mi-d ; me-d; mi-t(i).

mis-, mis- : akin to mid, Goth, mi'sso, mutually ; missa-; mis-; miss-; mis-.

a- (w, apa, o), ever : eva-s'? alfd; xvum ; div ; eo; ae ; eo.

2. Labials (p, b, f ).

up, adv., up : lipa; vtto, vTrip ; s-uh, s-vper ; iup ; up; upp ! 4/*

hi (be, biff), be-, hy: abhi; -0t ; (ti)-bi ; U; hi, be-; ; pi.

ymb(e), CTw6(c), about : a6Aj; afi^i; amb- ; ;wnbi ; um ; umpi.

of (ir/^), of, off: apa; otto; ab ; af; af; of; aba.

for-, for-(bid): pd-rd ; -irapd, irdp ; per- ; /"fa-; fiir-; for-; far-.

for, for : purds ; TrdpoQ ; prss ? faur ; fur{i) ; fyr(i) ; furi.

fore, fore- : purds; Trdpog ; por ; faura; for(a); for-; fora.

feor, adv. adj., far : ^ira; Trspa ; pei'-; fair-ra; fer; fiarri; fer.

, . ,„ ^^ (pari: Trepi ; per-; \ mixed; probably a simulation of Lat.fr&- (/rea-), very : r ^,

' -^ '

}

'^a e .>•

'>-s An ')\

Kjira ; Trpo ; pro, prw ; ) prm by compounds offrea (,§ 40, 1).

fram, from : pd-ra-m; Tripav ; peren-; fram; fratn; fram; fram.

3. Dentals (t, d, J), d, s).

aet, at : ddlii ; (o-y^i; ad; at; at; at; az.

6(t, unto : ddhi? ; ; and,und; unt; unz ; unt-.

to, to : ddhi? -ct; ;du ; t6,te; ; zuo, zi.

to-, in two: (cZ)fj- C§ 130, 2) ; Sid; dis- ; di^- ; te- ; ; ze(f),za{r).

ut, out : tit; va-npOQ; ;ut ; ut ; ut ; «3.

ed-, back : i-tara, oth&c ?;

i-terum? id-; id-ur; id-; it-.

hurh, through : .... tirds ; ; trans; pair-li ; thurh ; ;durak.

sam-, together: ... sa-md' ; ajjia; sim-ul ; sama; sama ; sam- ; sama.

sam-, half: sd-mi-; »//t"- ; semi-; ; sam-; ;sdmi-.

sin-, ever : sa-nd'; tVo-c ; sem-(^per') ; sin-steins') ; sin- ; si-; sin-.

4. Gutturals.

ge-, together : (sd-ycdm? ^uv? cum, co-? ga-; gi- ; g- ; ka-, etc.

iles—d-^ge, ever : . 0. H. G. ed-ga (§ 13C, 5).

(a.) For shifting of letters, see ^^ 18, 19, 41;

for precession and weather-

ing of endings, ^ 38. « <ar, 6d<^and, ^ 37; ymbe <C,abhi, and<^ddhi, (} 27,

5 ;A in Jmrh, c in edc, ^ 133, 2, a.

(5.) Most of the Sanskrit forms look like vowel pronominal bases with

suffixes and case-endings: a-hhi, a-pa^ a-pa-ra'^ gen. purds, locative

pari, ace. pdram, instrum. pdrd. ^ 62.

255. Comparative Forms : er, r, ter, der, cter, ct, d. ^^ 122-129.

of-cr, over ; ipf-ter, after ; un-der, under; pi-dcr, wither-(nam) ; to-pi-

dere, against ; ni-der, neath ; pi-d, with ; mi-d, with ; fo-r, for ; fo-re,

before ; f-rvk, very ; gcon-d, yond ; hin-d-an, behind; samo-d, together.

(b.) The above are formed on of; af; a?i>Sansk. an{a)-tara; pi; ni,

akin to in, Sansk. ani^ni, down, Gr. tvt-poi, O. H. G. ni-dar; mi<^ma;

f—<C.pa; gcon, Goth. jdins<Cja-na ; hin= heon{an) (i^ 252) ;sam.

132 PREPOSITIONS AND PREFIXES.—PARTICLES.

256. Superlative m(!^ 120) : fra-m, from

; pdram, ir'epav, peren- seem

to be accusatives, and in so far not analogous to from.

257. Adverbial -an (^252), mostly compounds: be-, b-, pid-wfl-an ;

for-an ; xt-, bi-, on-, to-, pid-for-an ; geond-an ; be-, pid-geond-an ; be-

heon-an ; bc-hind-an ; inn-an ; b-, on-, pid-inn-an ; neod-an ; be-, under-

neod-an ; uf-an ; b-, d-b-, on-uf-an ; upp-an ; on-upp-an ; ut-an ; b-, on-b-,

put-, ymb-ut-an ; English before; beyond ;

behind;within ; be-, under-

neath ;above

; a-b-, with-out.

258. From Substantives, mostly compounds with prepositions : to-

edcan, besides; a-, on-gegn, to-gegnes, against; ge-mong, on-gemong,

among ; on-efn (German n-eben), even with, beside, an-ent; in-middum,

td-middes, amidst ; be-tpeon-um, -an, between ; be-tpeo-h-s, be-tpeox, be-

twixt;so English be-side<^5e sidan; down <^d-dune, from a hill; a-loft

(ShakespeareX o?i li/fte, in the air; and the like, hand-, § 267,11.

259. From Adjectives = adverbs (see ^^ 254, 229) : &r, ere ; fear,far from

; ge-hende, handy to; la;s, less ; nedh, near, nehst, nedh-hand,

nigh to ; til (Northumbrian), to ; peard, td-peard, toward ; pana, less; ge-

long, and-long, along; n-efne, n-emne (compare on-efn, § 258), except;sid (late), since. Prefixes : eal- {pi-, el-), all

; efen-, co- ; ful-, full ; mis-,

mis- ; sdm-, serai-; sin-, ever

; pan-, less; pel-, well.

Particles of Interrogation, Affirmation, Negation.

260. Interrogation.— (a.) Adverbial forms of the pronominal ^/>, whose

derivation has been explained : hpxder, hpxr, hpider, hpanan, hpy, hu, and

compounds, for-hpam, etc.

(b.) Intensives: ne, ^ 254 ; ac (ach, ah), ^ 262 ; hu, ^ 252; Id, § 263.

(c.) Conjunctions in indirect questions : gif, if, ^ 262.

261. Affirmation and Negation.— (a.) From relational stems:

gea, ia, yea<ya (^ 107, a) ;Goth, ja, jai ; O. Sax., 0. Nor., O. H. G. ia.

ge-se, yes ; gea-\--se<^si, let it be.

ne (^ 254), n-a, n-6, nay, no;Goth, ne div, O. H. G. ni-eo, not ever,

ne-se, like gese : n-dn, Ger. n-etn, Lat. n-on, not one ; ncalles, nalass, nies

{ne ealles), not at all ; n-d-piht, nbhl, not a whit.

(6.) Regular adverbial forms : sodlke, pitodlice, verily.

DERIVATION.—CONJUNCTIONS.—INTERJECTIONSo 133

262. CONJUNCTIONS.In their formation they are similar to prepositions.

I. From relational stems.— (a.) Not before explained:

Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. O. Sax. O. Nor. O. H. G.

and, ond, and; (dti ; tn

; et) ?;

andi ; ;anti (u).

ano, ono, an= if; (<aMa); dv; an; an; O.K.G. eno, inu<!.an+nu.

gif, if; ja-d (j'a-pi) ; (I; s-i; ja-bai ; (ef; ef; ihu).

ac (ch, A), but; (akin to edc, § 251 ?) ; ak ; ac ; ;

oh.

ge, and; (< ja, § 252

; Srj< SJd ; ja-ni) ; ja-h ; ja, ja-c ; oh ? ioh.

gyt, ffeta, yet ; <igeo, ^252; ; ; ju-pan; ; M. H. G. ie-zuo.

})en-den, whilst; compare Latin tan-dem ; pan-de ; ; ;

dan-ta.

J)eah {peh), though ;see for -uh § 133, 2, a ; pa-uh ; thih ; po ; doh.

odde (edda, pe), or; utha, but; ; at; ip, aip-pau; ettha; eda; eddo(p-").

eac, also; sam, samo-d, as well as; ne— ne, neither— nor; nu— nu,

now—then, have been given with adverbs or prefixes.

and may be akin with and<Canti (^ 254). ano is all doubtful ; ja^ja-bai and i > Goth, i-ba = O. H. G. i-bu, are kindred stems ; gif, O.

Friesic je/, Lithuanic jet-J, go with ja-bai i^^ 107, a; 63,^) ; ge might

be ge- (^ 254) ; -den in pen-den, -pan in ju-pan, are the demonstrative

ta (^ 104, b) ;Goth, tp > ed, ap > od is akin to ed- {^^ 254, 3 ; 38).

{b.) Many other pronominal adverbs, whose etymology has been explained,

and whose meaning and use belong in syntax : liii, how ; spa, so ; spxjlce,

such ; pidcr, panan, pa, pij, pe, pxs, ponne, p&r ; hpi-der, whither ; hpx-der,

whether ; elles, else ; O. H. G. albs, alies, gen., Lat. alias, al-, ^ 216.

II. From notional stems, a few oblique cases of nouns.

hpile, hpil-iim—hpUum, sometimes—sometimes.

263. INTERJECTIONS.(1.) Imitation of cries, or sound-gestures : ed, eie, edp, oh

; pa, pea, wo;

Za, lo; Aa, ha; hd,\\o.; compounds—ea-^a, mixed with French Ae-/a5 (Lat.

lassus, weary), alas, corrupt alack ; pd-ld, pd-ld-pd, welaway, corrupt wel-

aday, etc. ; liig. Jug, Lat. o, a, iElfrc. Coll.

Somewhat similar quasi-words are wide-spread, but they can be iden-

tified only when steadied by true words formed from them : Greek ba,

ovai, Lat. vcB, Goth, vdi, O. Sax. we, Swed. ve, O. II. G. we, wo;O.

II. G. ivc-la, etc. Such words were doubtless as numerous in the an-

cient languages as in English, but are not preserved in books.

(2.) True words used as cries or gestures have nothing peculiar in their

etymology : hpxt, what; /ui,how ; pel, well ; peg Id—pel W,well done, etc. ;

cfne, Lat. eccc, lo.

134 COMPOSITION OF WORDS.

264. COMPOSITION OF WORDS.

Composition proper combines word-stems so as to express a new notion.

Coalescence is the running together of whole words with such change

of accent as to make a new word.

(a.) Parasyntheta are derivatives from compounds.

Nouns.

265.—I. Form.—Nouns final in compounds retain their stems and end-

ings: elsewhere only their theme, except substantives in e<^ia, e<^t, and

u(o): gum-a, ma,n; gum-cyn, ma-nkind ; eald-fxdcr, gra.ndfa.ther ; gryre,

horror ; gryre-hpil, time of horror ; lagu, lake ; lagu-flod, river. Coales-

cence takes place of prefixes and some genitives with a following noun :

Sxternes-dwg, Saturday; M6nan-da?g, Monday; Oxend-ford, Oxford;

daeges-ege, daisy ; and-sparu, answer ; un-treopd, untruth ; un-pis, un-

wise, etc. Words with quasi-sufRxes are compounds in form. § 229.

266.— II. Relation of Stems to each other.— (1.) Attributive

(substantive+ substantive)—appositive : dc-treo, oak-tree ; pif-man, wo-

man; compare peop-boren, born a slave ; descriptive : gdr-ledc, spear-

leek, garlick ; heafod-man,\\ea,d-man; genitive: god-spel, God's mes-

sage; (adjective -f substantive) : mid-da:g, mid-da.y ; 7icdh-bur, neigh-hour.

Adjective parasyntheta from the last are called Possessives : cl&n-hcort,

possessing a clean heart ; dn-hendc, one-handed ; dn-edge and dn-eged,

one-eyed ; bwr-fot, bare-foot, bare-footed.

(2.) Objective.—(Substantive -f-noun, between which an accusative end-

ing or preposition would express the relation)—accusative : man-cpellere,

man-killer ; dd-sparing, oath-swearing ; blod-geote, shedding of blood : gen-

itive : cear-ful, full of care; dative : god-Uc, like to God.

(3.) Adverbial {noun or particle + adjective) : scl-meahtig, all-mighty ;

manig-feald, manifold ; blod-redd, blood-red; sndp-hpit, snow-white ; un-

clesne, unclean ; {noun or particle -\- substantive)—space relations : land-

man, man living on the land, farmer ; time : niht-hnrfn, raven flying by

night ; cause : hand-gepeorc, hand-iwork ; purpose : ort-geard, orchard,

yard for vegetables ; ealo-fxt, vat for ale; edg-sealf, eye-salve ; with an

infinitive, hpet-stdn, stone to whet; put-boc, writing-book ; material : stdn-

peal, wall of stone ; is-gicel, icicle; gold-smid, worker in gold.

(a.) Attributive compound nouns not possessives and adverbially com-

pound adjectives are called Determinatives.

(5.) Collectives have copulate parts : per-polf, man and wolf, were-

wolf; preo-tyne, three and ten.

267. Verbs.

I. For the terminations springing from composition, see § 160.

FORIVLVTION OF WOKDS TO EXPllESS GENDER. I35

II. Verbs with proper compound stems are parasyntheta from compoundnouns. But note hand-sellan, put in hand; ful-fyllan, etc., below.

III. Compound verbs are directly formed by coalescence with preposi-

tions and prefixes : ofer-fleopan, over'flow ; d-pacan, a-wake; mis-don,

mis-do ; ful-fijllan, fulfill ; pcl-don, do well; efen-peoi'can, co-operate.

{a.) For prepositions and prefixes, see ^^ 15, 254.

{b.) Composition has the same laws throughout the Indo-European lan-

guages. Ill some of them so many of the stem-endings conform with the

most common one that it comes to be regarded as a sign of composition

(Gr. -0-, Lat. -i-,Goth. -a-) ; traces of this are in Anglo-Saxon : mht-e-gale,

night-in-gale.

FORMATION OF WORDS TO EXPRESS GENDER.

268.— I. Animals.—A. Words with pairs of endings (Mobile) :

Masculine, — < a ; a <[ an ; ere.

Feminine, — <C*> e<Can; e, ige <1 ie <^ ian ,• en<Cenni; estre.

1. (— <Ca and — <C0) umlaut, ^ 32: gat, -es, g&t, -e, he-goat, she-goat;

m&g, -es, -e, kins-man, -woman ; pulf,pylf, he-, she-wolf.—2. (a and e) :

ass-a, -e, he-, she-ass ; mdg-a, -e, kins-man, -woman; nef-a, -e, nephew,

niece ; rxg-a, -e, hart, roe; peop-a, -e, man-, maid-servant ; pebh-a, -e,

weaver; picc-a, -e, witch; pudup-a, -e, widow-er.— 3. (— <^a and e,

ige) : mearh, merige, mere, myre, horse, mare ; hldford, hldf{or)d-ige,

lord, lady.— 4. (a and — <^i) han-a, hen, cock, hen.— 5.

(— <^a and

en) : xlf, -en, elf; fox,fixen, fox, vi.xen; god, gyd-en, god-dess ; muncc,

-en, monk, nun; Jicop, -en, pegen, pign-en, pealh, pyl-en, servant

;add

manna, mennen, servant; cdsere, cdser-n, emperor, empress.— 6. (ere

and estre) : bxc-ere, bxc-cstre, baker, bakster; hearp-ere, -estre, harper ;

hopp-ere, -estre, dancer ; red-ere, -estre, reader ; sang-ere, -estre, singer ;

sedm-erc, -estre, seam-ster ; pebb-ere, -estre, weaver, webster ; fidcl-erc,

-estre, fiddler. — 7. (Relics): gos <^gans, gandra (^^ 37; 41, Z»; 50),

goose, gander; cyning, open {-\/ cpan^ cun^ cyn, ^^ 35, 32, 38, 24),

king, queen ; abbud, -isse (Lat. abbatissa, Gr. -laaa), abbot, abbess ; speor,

speger (Goth, svaihr-a, -6, Lat. socer, socrus, Gr. tKvp-oQ, -d, Sansk.

fvagura, fva^ru), father-, mother-in-law.

B. Compounds whose first part marks sex, last part gender :

Masculine, pxpned, pstp-, p&pen-, weaponed ; carl, hyse, man, guma.Feminine, pif, wife ; mwgden, maid

; cpcn, woman.

piipned-man, m., -beam, n., cild, n., -pifestre, f., man, boy, hermaphrodite ;

hyse-cild, n., boy; man-cild, n., man-child ; man-csnc, m., man-servant;

gum-man, man ; gum-pegn, man ; carl-cat, m., -fugol, m., tom-cat, -bird;

pif-man"^ pimman, m., woman; ptf-pegn, m., servant; plf-freohd, m.,

friend; m&den-cild, n., -f&mnc, f., -man, m., female child, maid; cpcn-

136 rOKMATION OF WOKDS TO EXPRESS GENDER.

fugol, m., bird; add sperc-healf, f., spindl-healf, f., spcar-lialf= male

side, spindle-half= female side.

C. Male and female have names from different roots. Such namesabound for man and the domestic animals. They are old and widespread.

Man : guma, per, husbonda, hod, secg, hxle{d), rinc, hcorn, carl ; plur.

firds; f:cmmine,fu;m7ic, ides, bryd,f6slre, meople, mwged, m&g, open;neuter, beam, cild, child

; pif, wife. Pairs of kindred : fxder, modor ;

sunu, dohtar ; brodor, spcostor; cam, mudrigc, uncle, aunt; god-fxder,

god-modor.Horse: hcngcst, steda,fola; feminine, 7?zcn7ic. Ox: oxa, steorc, fearh,

bulluca; fern. cu,heafre. Sheep: ram,pedcr; {em.c6p{ii). Swine:bar, eofor, bearh ; fem. sugu. Goat: bucca, hirfcr; fern, rdh, rd.

Deer : heart, m., hmd, f. Dog : hu7id, m., bicce, f. Hen : coc, m.,

hen, f. Bee : drdn, m., beo, f. Neuter : hors, picg, horse; swtn,

swine; 7n«7, mule; f/cor, wild beast, deer

; cea//, calf; lamb; scedp,

sheep.

Names of other animals are epicene {^ 67). Neuter names of young ani-

mals often add -ir-, -er- in the plural : cild, cild-er-u, child, children

(^ 82). Nothing else peculiar in tiic formation.

269.— II. Things without Sex, and abstracts. For general rules,

^ 67 (gender of the endings, ^^ 231-239). It is often not easy to tell howfar personification, and how far phonetic laws, determine the gender (^ 64,

2). The same object often has names of different genders : see, f., logo,

m., brim, n., cgor, n., sea. The Teutonic tongues generally agree. Butnote Neuters (German masculine) mod, mood, muth; tpig, twig, zwei"-;

pin, wine, wein ; (German feminine) clif, cliff, klippe ; ear, ear, dhre ;

fxsten, fastness, feste ; lie, corps, leiche ; sAd, seed, saat ; sceorp, scarf,

schdrpe ; pxpen, weapon, waffe ; pesten, n.,m., v,-a,ste,witsic ; Masculines

(German feminine), crwft, craft, kraft; lust, lust; tear, tear, zdhre ; (Ger-man neuter) ende, end

; feld, field; here, army, heer ; sal, cord, seil ; Fem-

ININES (German masculine), turf, turf, torf; piht, wight, wicht ; (Germanneuter) blxd, blade, blatt ; boc, book, buch ; Imlu, health, heil ; heorlc,

heart, herz ; gesihd, sight, gesicht.

270.— III. Derivatives from foreign names retain their gender, exceptFeminines> masculines : ancor, anchor

; Joo?, box-wood; ^cr^uc, peach

pistol, epistle ; regal, rule; >neuters : non, noon

; NEUTERS>masculinesbalsam ; crcda, creed

; >feminines : ceaster, city ; lilie, lily ; palant, palace

timpane, ^n\m1

PART III.

SYNTAX.

271. Syntax is tlie doctrine of grammatical combinations oftcords. It treats of the use of the etymological forms in dis-

course—their agreement, government, and arrangement.

SIMPLE COMBINATIONS.

272. There are four simple combinations: the pi'edic'ative, at-

trib'utive, objective, and adverbial.

273.—I. Predicative= 7i0)mnative substantive -\- agreeing verb ,

=)io77iinative substantive-^- agreeing 2^redicate noim;=znominative substantive -\-23redicate advei-b.

gold glisnad, gold glistens ; gold is heorht, gold is bright ;

JElfred pses cyning, Alfred was king ;ic com her, I am here.

(a.) This is a combination between a

subject, of which something is said {=zgold, JElfred, ic), and a

predicate, which is said of the subject {:= glisndct, beorht, cyning, her').

(S.) Copula.— The sign of predication is the stem-ending of a notional

verb (=:a in glisnud^, or is a relaiional verb (is, pses, eom). The substan-

tive verb, when so used, is called the copula—a good name for any sign of

predication. Copulative verbs take a predicate noun.

(c.) Quasi-predicative is the relation between the implied subject and

predicate in a quasi-clause. ^ 278, d.

274.—11. AXXrihutiwe=agreeing noun-^ substantive ;

^.genitive substantive-\- substantive.

god cyning, good king ; JElfred xdcling, Alfred the prince ;

Engld land, land of the Angles.

(a.) This combination expresses the relation of subject+ attribute as

taken for granted. The leading substantive is called the

subject, that to which the attribute belongs {cyning, JElfred, land) ;

an attributive is the agreeing adjective {god), or genit. substantive {Engld) ;

an appositive is the agreeing substantive {xdeling).

{b.) The sign of this relation is the agreeing case-endings, or the attribu-

tive genitive ending, or a preposition {^ 277,2).

lo8 SYNTAX.—SIMPLE COMBINATIONS.

275.— III. Objective = verb + governed noun.

= adjective + governed noun.

ic huntige heortds, I hunt harts ; he syld him hors, he sells him ahorse ; gilpes pu gyrnest, thou wishest fame

; p&re fabhde he ge-feah, he rejoiced at the vengeance ; hi macad hme (to) njmnge,they make him king ; hpi scgst Pu me godnc, why callest thou megood 1 bead gcmindige Lodes jnfes, remember Lot's wife.

(a.) This combination expresses the relation of an act or quality to its

completing notional object.

Objective verbs or adjectives are those which need such object {huntige, etc.).

Subjective need no such object {ic sl&pc, I sleep).

Transitive verbs have a suflcring object {huntige, syld, macad, etc.).Intransitive have no suffering object {gyrnest, gcfeah).

'

The completing object may be

suffering {=dtrect),an accusative merely affected {heortds, hors, hine,mc);dative {=indirectz=personal), a receiver to or for whom is the act {him) ;

genitive, suggesting or exciting the act {gilpes, f&hdc, p'lfes) ;

factitive, a product or result in fact or thought {cyninge, godne).

{b.) The sign of relation is the case-ending or a preposition.

(c.) Many Anglo-Saxon verbs require an object, when the English bywhich we translate them do not. Many objects conceived as cxcitinp- in

Anglo-Saxon are conceived as suffering in English ; many as merely ad-

verbial.

{d.) The factitive object often has a quasi-predicative relation to the suf-

fering object, agreeing with it like a predicate noun {me+ godne). Suchclauses are nearly equivalent to two (why sayest thou that I am good?).

276.—IV. A6.vevhidl=verh+ adverb ov adverbial phrase.—adjective -\- adverb or adverbial 2')hrase.

=adverb-\- adverb or adverbial i^lirase.

ic gd ut, I go out;

ic singe sclce dwg, I sing each day ; pe sprecadgepemmodlice, we speak corruptly ; he com mid pa f&mnan, hecame with the woman ; mid sorgum libban, to live having cares ;

hpi fandige ge mm, why tempt ye me ? micle md man is scedpcbetera, man is much (more) better than a sheep.

(a.) This combination is between an act or quality and its unessential

relations. The most common relations are place {ul), time {xlce dxg),manner {gepemmodlice), co-existence {mid fwmnan, mid sorgum), cause

{hpi), intensity {micle, md, scedpc).

{h.) The sign is an adverbial ending, case-ending, or preposition.

(c.) The adverbial combination is given by Becker as a subdivision of

the objective, hni the linguistic sense of the Indo-European races unifora.iy

recognizes the adverb as a separate part of speech.

EQUIVALENTS.—SENTENCES. 139

277. Equivalents of the Noun and Adverb iu the com-

binations :

(1.) For a, Substantive may be used a substantive noun or

pi'onoic7i, an adjective or any of its equivalents, an infinitive, a

clause,) any word or phrase viewed merely as a thing.

(2.) For an Adjective may be used an adjective noun or joj-o-

noun, an article (attributively), a ^jar^zc/^^e, a genitive substan-

tive, an adverb, a preposition loith its case, a relative clause.

(3.) For an Adverb may be used an oblique case of a noun

with or without a preposition, a 2}hrase, a clause.

SENTENCES.278. A Sentence is a thought in words. It may be

declarative, an assertion, indicative, subjunctive, or potential ;

interrogative, a question, indicative, subjunctive, or potential;

imperative, a command, exhortation, entreaty ;a species of

exclamatory, an expanded interjection. ^"^ 149-151.

(a.) A clause is one Jinite verb with its subject, objects, and all their at-

tributives and adjuncts. Its essential part is its predicative combination.

The {grammatical) subject of the predicative combination, its attributives

and adjuncts, make up the logical subject of the clause;the grammatical

predicate and its objects with their attributives and adjuncts make up the

logical predicate.

(6.) A subordinate clause enters into grammatical combination with

some word in another (principal) clause; co-ordinate clauses are coupled

as wholes.

(c.) The sign of relation between clauses is a relative or conjunction.

(<f.) Quasi-clauses. — (1) Infinitives, participles, and factitive objects

mark quasi-predicative combinations, and each has its quaai-clause. (2) Li-

terjections and vocatives are exclamatory quasi-clauses.

279. A Sentence is simple, complex, or compound.

280. A simple sentence is one indipendent clause.

I. A predicative combination.

Verb for predicate: fisceras fisciad, fishersyjs/j.

Adjective : God is god, God is good.Genitive : tol C&sares is, tribute is Cxsar''s.

Substantive : Cicdmon pxs leodpyrhta, Ca^dmon was a poet.

Adverb : pe sind her, we are here.

Adverbial : God is in heofenum, God is in heaven.

Subject indefinite : (Jiit) sntpd, it snows;me Jiyrst, me it tliirstcth.

140 SENTENCES.

II. Clause with attributive combination.

Adjective attribute : god gold glisndd, good gold glistens.

Genitive : folces stemn is Godes stemn, foWs voice is God^s voice.

Appositive : pe cildra sind ungelairede, we children arc untaught.

III. Clause with objective combination.

Direct object : Cccdmon porhte leudsangds, Caedmon made poems.Dative : l&n me prthlcifus, give me three loaves.

Genitive : pxt pif dhloh drihtnes, the woman laughed at the lord.

Factitive : Simonem he nemde Petrum, Simon he named Peter.

IV. Clause with adverbial combination.

Place : ic gd ut, I go out.

Time : ic gd ut on dxgred, I go out at daion.

Manner : se cyning scryt me pel, the king clothes me well.

Co-existence : mid sorgum ic libbe, I live with cares.

Cause : he has is for cylde, he is hoarse from cold ; se cnapa pypddoxan mid gadisene, the boy drives oxen with an iron goad.

281.—V. Abridged complex sentence. Clause containing a

quasi-clause. § 278, d.

Infinitive : tsbc us sprecan, teach us to speak.

Factitive : hpt segst pu me godne, why callest thou me (to be) good?Participle (adjectival) : ic hcbhe sumrie cnapan, Jjypendne oxan, I have a

boy, {driving) who drives oxen; (adverbial, gerund), Boetius gebxdsingende, Boethius prayed singing ; (absolute), pinre durd beloccnre,

bide pinne fseder, thy door having been locked, pray thy father.

282.—VI. Abridged compound sentence (§ 284), Verbs>verb.

Compound subject : he and seo singad, he and she sing.

Compound predicate : he is god and pis, he is good and wise ; seo lu-

fdd hine and me, she loves hi^n and me.

283. A complex sentence is one principal clause Avith its

subordinate clause or clauses. § 278, h. The subordinate maybe a

Substantive : (subject), is sxgd pxt he com, that he came is said; (ob-

ject), ic pal pxt he com, I wot that he came ; (appositive), tc com to

pam, pxt he pxre gefulpod, I came for this, that he might be baptized.

Adjective : sixf-crxft is seo cxg, pe pxrd hoed andgit unlycd, grammaris the key, that unlocks the sense of the books.

Adverb : (place), hpider pu gxst, ic gd, I go lohither thou goest; (time),

tc gd hpxnne pu gxst, I go when thou goest; (manner), ^m sprxce spd

spa an stunt p'lf, thou spakest as a stupid ivoman speaks; (intensity).

ft

FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 141

heud gleapc spa iixdran, be wise as serpents ; leofre is hlehhan ponne

gr&tan, it is better to laugh than cry ; (cause= efficient, motive, means,

argument, condition [protasis to an apodosis], concession, purpose) :

kit punrddforpam God pilt, it thunders because God wills; paciad^for-

pam pe ge nyton pone dceg, watch, because ye know not the day ; On-

send Higeldce, gif mec hild nime, (protasis) ifme battle take, (apodosis)

send to Higelac, etc. Co-existence is usually in an abridged participial

clause (^281).

284. A compound sentence is a number of co-ordinate

clauses. § 278, h.

Copulative : ic ga ut and ic geocie oxan, I go out and I yoke oxen.

Adversative : fyr is god pcgn, ac is frecne frea, fire is a good servant,

hut is a bad master; ne nom he ma, Peak he monige geseah, he took no

more, though he saw many.

Disjunctive : ic singe odde ic r&de, I sing or I read.

Causal : forpy ge ne gehyrad, forjjam pe ge ne synd of Gode, therefore

ye do not hear, {for this that) because ye are not of God.

FIGURES OF SYNTAX.

285. A complete sentence has every part of all its combina-

tions expressed.

A normal sentence is complete, and has its parts expressed

and arranged according to the general laws of the language.

Figures of Syntax are deviations from the normal sen-

tence.

I. Ellipsis, omission. This may be of a conjunction (asyn'deton), of

a word to have been repeated (brachyl'ogy), of a verb somewhat like one

in a corresponding clause (zeugma), of the latter part of a clause not to be

supplied from the corresponding part of other clauses (aposiope'sis). See

also anacoluthon (below. III.).

II. Pleonasm, too many words. There may be too many conjunctions

(polysyndeton), two nouns and a conjunction for a noun and attributive

(hendi'adis).

III. Enallage, substitution. Of one part of speech for another (anti-

meri'a), of one case for another (hypal'lage), of a different scheme of con-

.struction for the one in which a sentence begins (anacolu'tliou). Syn'-

esis is a construction according to sense and not grammatical form.

lY. Hyper'baton, transposition. Of words (anas'trophe), of clauses

(hys'teron-prot'eron).

142 USES OF THE CASE-ENDINGS.

USES OF THE CASE-ENDINGS.Substantives.

Agreement of Endings.

286.—I. Predicative Combination.—A predicate noim

deaotiug the same person or thing as its subject, agrees with it

in case.

(a.) Also in gender, if it varies for gender, and oftenest in number; but

copulate singulars and a plural agree : ic eom peg, I am the way (John,

xiv, 6) ; he is mm sunn, he is my son (Luke, ix, 38) ;he and seo sind

freondds, he and she are friends. Nouns of multitude take Synesis.

{b.) The rule applies to quasi-predicatives (^ 278, d) : God het pa fxst-nisse heofenan, God called the Jirma7nent heaven (Gen., i, 8). But pred-icate-accusative substantives are rare in Anglo-Saxon. The Latin and

Greek accusative + infinitive is generally represented by a clause with

pxt (that), and the factitive depends on to (to) or for, as does often the

common predicate : J)u pyrcst pe to Gode, thou makest thyself (to) God(John, X, 33) ; me p&ron mine tedrus for hldfds, to me my tears were

(for) bread (Psa., xlii, 3).

(c.) The rule is called for oftenest in clauses having the verb be {eom,

pesan, beon), become {pcordan), stand, lie, etc. {standan, licgan, etc.), go,remain {gdn, punian), seem, prove {pyncan, profian) ; and passives of

naming, calling {hdtan, nemnan), seeing, thinking, telling {seon, tellan),

making, appointing, choosing {macian, gcsceapan, gesettan, geberan, ge-ceosan, etc.). The predicate noun is oftenest an adjective: pa bedmds d

grene stondad, the trees stand ever grceji (C. Ex., 200, 4) ; mm cnapa ltd

lama, my hoy lies lame (Matt., viii, 6); peos poruld puna.t gchdl, this world

remaineth ivhole (St. B., 14) ; me pxt riht ne p)ynced, to me that seems not

right (C, 289) ; leoht pxs dxg genemned, light icas called day (C, 129) ;

lytel he pies gesepen, he was seen (as) little (Horn., i, 138) ; he ptes blind

acenned, he was born blind (John, ix, 20) ; Saxulfpxs gecoren to biscop,

Saxulf it'as chosen (to) bishop (Chr., 656). See b.

287.— II. Attributive Combination.—Au appositiveagrees in case Avith its subject.

Often also in gender and number. It is an undeveloped adjective clause,

generally marked as such by tone and punctuation ;but in titles it some-

times makes with its subject a kind of compound noun in English (see be-

low, e) : pe, cildra, we, (who are) children {JEM.) ; seo drpyrde f&mneEcgburh ahbodisse, Aldpulfes dohtor J)xs cyninges, sende pam drpyrdan

pere Gudldce leddene pruh, the venerable maid Ecgburh abbess, Aldvvulf's

daughter the king('s), sent to the venerable man Guthl^'c a leaden coffin

(St. G., 18) ; Dryhten sylf, heofend hcdhcyning, the Lord himself, heaven's

APPOSITIVES. 143

high king (And., 6) ; pxs sum Jus scipes-man, pxs foresprecenan Adel-

baldes, there was one, his boatman, the aforesaid Athelbald's (St. G., 22) ;

freondscipe si betpux imc, mc and pe, friendship be betwixt us, mc and

thee (G., 31, 44) ; pid Blxdlan and Atlilan, Hand cyningum, against Bled-

la and Attila, kings of the Huns (Bed., 1,13); spa her men dod, geongeand ealde, so here men do, young and old (C, 1206) ;

hi pegniad, xlc,

odrum, they serve, each the others (Met., 25, 12). The appositive is some-

times

descriptive, giving kind, condition, etc., of its subject (cildra, abbodisse,

dohtor, cyninges, hedhcyning, scipes-man, etc., in examples above) ;

definitive, a specific name after a general description, very common in

Anglo-Saxon {Ecgburh, Gudldc, Adelbaldes), emphatic (sylf). {Repeat-ed Subject.

—A pronoun-|-a name, and a name-j-a pronoun, where the

seeming attributive is really a repetition of the subject for clearer syntax,are very common : se Heelend, hefwste, the Saviour, he fasted, St. G., 9) ;

partitive, giving parts of its subject, or its whole {mc and pe, cyningum,

geonge and ealde). Examples are introduced by spa spa (Latin wf, Ger-

man als) : sume bead langspeoredc, spa spa spands, some (birds) are

long-necked, as swans (St. B., 14) ;

distributive {mlc).

{a.) Adjectives are often appositives {geonge and ealde), so pronouns.

{b.) Sentences are often appositives, oftenest definitives beginning with

pxt, after hit, pxt, ping, or the like indefinite subject : 'pcet gelamp, pxt

picr com sum man, it happened, that there came a man (St. G., 9) ;hit

(20) ; pmg (19).

(c.) Appositive for partitive genitive is found after sum: pa cp&donsume pa bocerds, then quoth some (of) {the) scribes (Matt., ix, 3) ; sume,hi comon, some (of them) they came (Mc, viii, 3). Rask gives tpcgcnmarc gold, two marks (uf) gold. I have not found such forms in Anglo-Saxon ; but they are common in Old English, after the inflections had de-

cayed (Lang.,1, 174; Ch.,7328). So German masse geld, pfund Jleisch,

etc. The reverse, gold, two marhs, is in Sanskrit, and down to English.

{d.) Genitive for appositive of material or place : ccaslra Natzarcdes

for ceastre Nazareth, i. e. City of Nazareth := City Nazareth,i^313.

(e.) Genitives in apposition all have their endings, where in Old Englishall hut one drop it : cyninges Aldpulfes dohtor, king('s) Aldwulf's daugh-ter. See above.

(/.) An appositive often fails to agree with its subject from anacoluthon :

mtnum hldforde* * *

Alfpold cyning (nominative), to my lord—King Alf-

wold (St. G., Pro].) ;se rica and se heuna * * * ealle hi gelice sc slranga

dead forgrlpcd, the rich and the poor (nominative)— all these alike strong

death gripeth (St. G., 19).

{g.) Number. Note cyningum, selc, above. After a dual the name of

the second person is used alone partitivcly : pit Scilliiig soi^g dhofan, we,

(T and) Scilling, raised a song (C. Ex., 324, 31) ; xinc Adamc, to us, (me

U-1 NOMINATIVE.—VOCATIVE.

and) Adam (C, 387) ; git lohannis, ye, (thou and) John (C. Ex., 467, 7).

This idiom is found in O. H. German, is common in O. Norse.

(A.) Gender. Synesis. Substantives agree in natural rather than in

grammatical gender: JEIJhud., pxt maiden, A.\^c<\,i\\c maiden (Horn., ii, 150).

NOMIXATIVE.

288. Tlio subject of fi finite. verb is put in the nomina-tive.

JElfred cpsed, Alfred said; God is god, God is good.

{a.) Nominative independent. The subject of quasi-clauses of enun-

ciation is put in the nominative. Such are names and titles containing no

predicative combination : pxt godspel wfter lohannes gerecednysse, the

Gospel according to John. Anacoluthon, ^ 387,/. Absolute, § 295.

{b.) Repeated subject. See ^ 287, definitive.

(c.) Predicate nominative. See ^ 286.

{d.) Attributive nominative. See ^ 287.

(c.) Factitive object. A nominative of enunciation is often used in-

stead of a factitive object after verbs of naming, calling, and the like : cly-

pode God his gefylsta, he called God his ''helper'''' (Hom., 2, 82) ; hdtad

hine xfensiiorra, they call it"evening star'"' (Met., 29, 30) ; ge clypiad me

Ldreop and Dryhten, ye call me " Master" and " Lord" (John, xiii, 13).

This use of ihe. oratio dirccta is the common form in Sanskrit, and has

doubtless been common in all folkspeech. It is in the Greek of the Nevi^

Testament ; the Latin Vulgate in such cases uses the vocative, as does the

Greek sometimes. It is in the Gothic (O. H. German T) and M, H. Ger-

man. Compare ^^ 289, d ; 29 i.

Vocative.

289. A compellative is put in the vocative.

Ldreop, sege ponne. Lord, speak then (Luke, vii, 40) ;ed Id geonga, O

young man (Luke, vii, 14) ; Id pu licetere, thou hypocrite (Matt., vii,

5) ; hldford cyning, lord king (Ap., 7) ; Fxder iire, pu pe eart on heo-

fenum., our Father, thou that art in the heavens (Matt., vi, 9) ; rnin,

se spetesla sunnan scima, lulidna, my (the) sweetest sunshine, Juli-

ana (Ju., 166) ; Hcrra, se goda, Lord, the good (C. (G.), 678).

(a.) A compellative is the subject of a quasi-clause of address. The ad-

dress may be formal, a simple call, or an emphatic judgment {pu licetere).

The vocative may have an interjection with it, or not;

it may enter into at-

tributive combination with adjectives, appositives, clauses, etc. Note the

use of an appositive with the definite article : Herra, se goda ; min, se spe-tesla ; and compare French Monseigneur Varchevesque, etc.

{h.) The weak form of the adjective is often used in the vocative without

a definitive : leofa Beopulf, dear Beowulf (B., 1854).

ACCUSATIVE.—IMPERSOXALS. 145

(c.) Latin vocatives are sometimes used : Thaliarche, Apolloni (Ap., 5,

7,9).

{d.) Quasi-clause. The vocative (with or without attributives) may en-

ter into combinations as a clause. It may be a direct object : manige

cpedatl, Dryhten, Dryhten, many shall say, Lord, Lord (Matt., vii, 22) ;

factitive object : hpi clypige ge me Dryhten, Dryhten, why call ye me

Lord, Lord? (Luke, vi, 46). Compare ^ 288, e.

(e.) The native grammarians in Sanskrit do not separate the vocative

from the nominative, but think it a slightly modified form for address. Its

syntax is nearly the same in all our languages.

Accusative.

290. Objective Combinations.— L The direct objectof a verb is put in the accusative. It may be

L A material object moved, hit, or changed, or produced as an effect,

by a transitive verb : pone maddum hyred, he bears the treasure (B.,

2055) ; stormus stdnchfu beutan, storms beat cliffs (Seaf., 23) ; ic

dhyrde heortan, I will harden his heart (Exod., iv, 21) ; scip pyrcan,

to build a ship (C, 1302). {Madm^ maddum, Orm. maddmess.)

(a.) Persons and abstractions may also be conceived as material objects

of act or thought : se pxt picg byrd, he whom that horse bears (El., 1196) ;

ic bere dryhtnes domds, I bear the lord's commands (D., 744).

(b.) Transitive verbs express an exercise of the appetites (eat, drink,

etc.), the senses (see, hear, etc.), the sensibilities (love, hate, etc.), the in-

tellect (know, think, etc.) ; movements—moving an object, or keeping it

from moving (set, lay, raise, carry, heave, have, hold, marry, catch, take,

give, lead, throw, drive, call forth, send forth, speak, etc.), hitting or moving

towards it (strike, follow, etc.), changing its form or condition (break, tear,

harden, cover, sprinkle, etc.), making an object (do, make, work, build, etc.),

causative acts. Verbs expressing these notions as affecting the whole of a

material object govern the accusative throughout the Indo-European tongues.

(c.) Persons may be conceived as suffering objects of their appetites.

Impersonals of aiopetite or passio7i govern an accusative

of the person suffering.

Me pyrste, it thirsted me= I suffered thirst (Matt., xxv, 35); me hin-

grede, I suffered hunger (Matt., xxv, 35) ;hine lystc, it listed him==

he suffered list (B., 1793) ;mcc longdde, I longed (Kl., 14) ; me apryt,

it irks me, dpreotan pegn (Sch.,21) ; us pldtad,v.-e loathe (Num., 21, 5).

So hreopan, rue (C, 1276) ; gcmsktan, dream (D., 122) ; eglian, ail (?)

(Bosworth, Ett. their example a mistake) ; tinclan, tickle (?), it tikclcth

me (Chaucer, C. T., 6053). Koch says passives of these impersonals

take an accusative ;so Grcin, his mandryhten (ace.) gemxted peard

K

140 KEFLEXIVES.—COGNATES.—TWO OBJECTS.

(D., 157) ; but dryhtcn is nom.,"his lord (was) had dreamed ;" so pxs

inonig gdystcd (Met., 1,U) ;ic pxs ofpyrsted (Seel., 40) ; ic eom of-

longdd (Kl.,29) ;no accusatives found.

{d.) Reflexives.—Many verbs may take an accusative of the reflexive pro-

noun : hine sylfm dhcng, he hung himself (Matt., xxvii, 5) ; dpende hine

sylfne to Gode, he turned himself to God (Chr., 1067). Sylf, self, is not fre-

quent in early Anglo-Saxon. Some verbs get to have a reflexive sense

without the pronoun : he gebcalh hine, he swelled himself= he was wrathful

(Luc, XV, 28) ; ge belgad, ye are wrathful (John, vii, 23) ; he hcpohle hine,

he bethought him (Luc, xv, 17) ; gxst hine fysed, the spirit hastens (it-

self) (Ex., 178, 7) ; ic me reste, I rest me (Ex., 494, 8) ;resle pict folc hit,

the people rested (itself) (Exod., xvi, 30) ; gegadorode miccl folc hit,

much people gathered itself (Chr., 921) ; parniad evp, beware (yourself)

(Matt., vii, 15) ; pene pec, wont thee (Fath., G2) ;se H&lend bcpende

ilnnc), the Saviour went (him) (Matt., ix, 22; Mc, v, 30). In Sanskrit