390 33 Powerpoint Slides 2 Essentials Grammar Chapter 2

7/30/2019 390 33 Powerpoint Slides 2 Essentials Grammar Chapter 2

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Oxford University Press 2011

COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Sanjay Kumar, Currently Associate Professor of

English at JK Lakshmipat University (JKLU), Jaipur

Pushp Lata, Currently Head, Department of Languages,

BITS, Pilani


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Chapter: 2

Essentials of Grammar


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Learning Objectives

To learn in detail about the different parts of speech such as

nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs

To know how many types of nouns are there and how they are

formed

To learn how pronouns are used and what their types are

To learn how to use the articles -a, an, and theappropriately in

your speech and writing

To learn in detail what a sentence is and its various types


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Parts of Speech

In English language, there are certain elements, such as noun,

pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, etc.,

which are considered essential parts of speech.


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Nouns

Nounis a word used to mean a person, place, or a thing.

Example

1. Jackis a stupid boy.

2.Indiais a great country.

3. The juryfound the prisonerguilty.

4.Beautyneeds no ornaments.

5.I have one sister.


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Common and Proper Nouns

These are words that are used to refer to common and non-specificthings, e.g., girl, boy, camera, computer, keyboard, etc.

As a general rule, a common noundoes not begin with a capitalletter unless it appears at the start of a sentence

Examples

1. Jaipur is a fascinating city.

2. Kathak is a famous dance.

3. Mohammad Rafi was a great singer.

4. Nokia is a mobile.5. Delhi is the capital of India.


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Proper Nouns

These are names of people, places, organizations businesses,schools universities, etc. They are always written with acapital letter, even if they are in the middle of a sentence.

Examples:London, Paris, Michael, Angela, MercedesBenz, Honda, Oxfam, King Edward VII, CambridgeUniversity, etc.



Collective Nouns

These are words that are used to describe groups of things, e.g.,platoon, class, band, cast, etc.

Note:Some collective nouns can only be used to refer tospecific groups, e.g., herd (of cattle), flock (of sheep), gaggle(of geese), caravan (of camels)

Sometimes, a number of persons or things are taken togetherand spoken of as one, e.g.,

1)The armyhas besieged the town.

2)The policewent for a cane charge.

3)The jur ygave its verdict



Abstract Nouns

These are the words used to name non-physical things. Theseinclude feelings, states of mind, concepts, etc.

Examples:love, hatred, ambition, cynicism, reluctance,mathematics, sociology, etc.

Let us look at a few more examples:

1.Laughteris a good medicine; so, you must laugh.

2. Though common mortals like you and me die, people like MotherTeresa become immortal; deathcannot kill them.

3.Friendshipis a great blessing. We must be proud of our friends.



Countable and Uncountable

Nouns

Those which can be counted, such as cup, orange, book,

engineer, donkey, etc., are called countable nouns.

The nouns that we cannot count, such as milk, oil , water,

bravery,beauty, dedication, etc., are known as uncountable

nouns.



ExerciseFind out whether the nouns given below are countable or

uncountable.

Girl

Wisdom

Idea

ImaginationStyle

Composure

Kite

Intuition

Paper

Tub

Pass

Title

Chair

MagazineSeminar

Crime

Integrity

Movie

Cricket

Speech



Continued

Choose the correct form Correct Usage

Rushdie is a man of

letter/letters.

Thousands of people

gathered to pay their lastrespect/respects to the

departed leader.

The armed force/forces can

be seen on a move along the

border. We have received the

good/goods sent by you.

Rushdie is a man of letters.

Thousands of people

gathered to pay their last

respects to the departedleader.

The armed forces can be

seen on a move along the

border.

We have received the goodssent by you.



Avoid Errors while Denoting

Plural Noun Forms

Choose Betweens/ -es Correct Usage

Volcanoes/ Volcanos cankeep simmering on forhundreds of years before

they burst. The first three cantoes

/cantos of the book arewonderfully written

The thiefs /thieves made off

with the entire jewelry. Photos/ Photoes clicked in

the broad day light, aregenerally not very clear.

Volcanoes can keep

simmering on for hundreds

of years before they burst.

The first three cantos of the

book are wonderfully

written.

The thieves made off with

the entire jewelry.

Photos clicked in the broad

day light, are generally not

very clear.



Choosing Plural Forms

AppropriatelySometimes, we go wrong while making the plural form of

compound nouns.

Compound Noun: To give some specific information about

something or someone, we use one defining type of noun aheadof another which is known as compound noun, e.g., a book rack

(a + noun + noun).



Compound Noun Usage

Incorrect Correct

The good trains derailed

on its way to Delhi. The cloth shop is just

round the corner.

Jane has been working as

an air-hostess with Indian

Airline.

The goods train derailed

on its way to Delhi. The clothes shop is just

round the corner.

Jane has been working as

an air-hostess with Indian

Airlines



Exercise

Choose the correct forms of the following nouns:

India and America have signed quite a few

memorandums/memoranda.

What is the criterion/criteria for selection in this

organization?

Our country is facing several different types of crisis/crises.

The phenomenon/phenomena of Indian engineers and doctors

going abroad has to change.

The parenthesis/parentheses shown within the text are to be

removed.



Answers

India and America have signed quite a few memoranda.

What is the criterion for selection in this organization?

Our country is facing several different types of crises.

The phenomenon of Indian engineers and doctors going abroadhas to change.

The parentheses shown within the text are to be removed.


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Pronouns

Pronoun is a word that replaces a noun. Without using

pronouns, we actually cannot write in a manner that would be

viewed as polished and proper.

Examples

It is I/me who protested the move in the meeting.

We are not so stupid as they/them are.

Let I/me speak for a while.

Mildred and I/me are childhood friends.


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Continued

If the pronoun has to be the subject of the sentence, it should be

in the subjective case, i.e., it should be written as I , He, She,

They, etc.

If the pronoun has to be the object of the sentence, it should be

in the objective case, i.e., it should be written as Me, Him, Her,

Them, etc.


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Continued

We have to use the pronoun in

the subjective case(I , We, You, They, He, She, I t,etc.)

the objective case (Me, Us, You, Them, H im, Her, I t,etc.)

or the possessive case (My, Our, Your, Their, H is, Her, I ts, etc.)


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Continued

Different nuances with regard to the usage of pronouns, lets see the

different types of pronouns

Personal pronouns (He, She, They, I, We, You, etc.)

Impersonal pronouns (It) Demonstrative pronoun (This, Those, These, etc.)

Distributive pronouns (Each, Either, Neither, etc.)

Indefinite pronouns (Some, Many, Everyone, Someone, etc.)

Relative pronouns (Who, Which, Whose, That)


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Contd

Reflexive and Emphatic Pronouns (Myself, Yourself, Themselves,

Herself, Himself, etc.)

Examples

It is raining quite hard this time. (Its raining quite hard thistime.)

Its been ages since I met him (It has been ages since I met him.)


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Exercise

Fill in the blanks with appropriate pronouns

1._______ am the one who cares for ________.

2. When ______ came to the room, ______ was locked.

3. Here is ______ book, take ______ away.

4. He loves _____ wife and cannot live without _____.

5. _______ has lent ______ scooter to _____ for a week.


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Answers

1. I; you

2. I/he/she; it

3. your; it

4. his; her

5 .He; his; him


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Adjectives

A word used to add to the meaning of a noun or pronoun is an

adjective.

Examples:

1. Amita is aclevergirl.

2. Rohan gave me fivebooks.

3.There is littletime for preparation.

4. Eachboy must wait for his turn.

5. Neitherstatement is true.


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Contd

When words such as each, either, neither, etc. are used with some

nouns, they are called Distributive Adjectives.

When words like thi s, that, those etc. precede some nouns, they

are called Demonstrative Adjectives.

When words like which, what, etc. precede a noun or a pronoun,

they are known as Interrogative Adjectives.


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Contd

Adjectives of Qualitygood, bad, wonderful , stupid, beauti ful ,ugly

Definite Numeral Adjectives

Cardinalone, two, three

Ordinalf irst, second, thi rd

Indefinite Numeral Adjectivesall, few, many, some, certain,

enough

Distributive Adjectivesthis, that, those

Demonstrative Adjectiveseach, neither

Interrogative Adjectiveswhich, what

Emphasizing AdjectivesVery, own


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Difference between few, a few, and the

few; and little, a little, and thelittle

Fewsuggests hardly anything or anybody.

A fewstands for some whereas the fewis used to refer to the

nouns in the context.

Littleis almost nothing.

A li ttlemeans some.

The li ttlemeans whatever little amount of something.


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Exercise

Fill in the blanks with appropriate adjectives from the list of

adjectives given below:

Pampered, petrified, latest, sensuous, ghastly, stylish, redundant,

talented

1. _________ children always get spoilt.

2. Keats poetry is remarkably __________.

3. With dead bodies littered around, it was a ______ sight.

4. Fashionable girls tend to dress-up in a _____ way.

5. Avoid using ________ words in your speech.


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Answers

1. Pampered children always get spoilt.

2. Keats poetry is remarkably sensuous.

3. With dead bodies littered around, it was a ghastly sight.4. Fashionable girls tend to dress-up in a stylish way.

5. Avoid using redundant words in your speech.


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Verbs

The verb is the most essential part of speech in English. You can

think of a sentence without subject or object but you can not

think of a sentence without a verb. Even the shortest sentence

contains a verb.

Example:Stop!, Come!, Go!, Sit!, etc.


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Contd

The verbs in English change in form according to Subject and

tense. For example, the verb to sing, to dance, to cry, etc.have

following forms:

1.to sing, sing, sings, sang, singing, sung2.to dance, dance, dances, danced, dancing

3. to cry, cry, cries, cried, crying


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Classification of Verbs

We divide verbs into two broad categories

1. Helping verbs

2. Main verbs


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There are only about 15 helping verbs : is, are, am, was, were, has,have, had, can, could, may, might, must, will, would

Modals

Examples

I. We can.

II. People must.

III.They will.

L inking Verbs

Example

Manisha is intelligent. (Manisha= intelligent)

Helping Verbs


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Main Verbs

These verbs have meaning on their own.

Examples

I write.

Children play. They run.

We laugh.

Main verbs are also called lexical verbs.


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Contd

Main verbs have meaning on their own unlike helping verbs.

There are thousands of main verbs, and we can classify them

in following ways.

Transitive and Intransitive

Dynamic and Static

Regular and Irregular


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Transitive and Intransitive

Verbs

Example

I. He read a novel yesterday.

II. My mother has planned a trip to Mumbai.

III. Snigdha loves swimming.

Read, planned, and loves require objects in order to complete

the sentences. Such verbs are called transitive verbs.

Transitive verbtakes a direct object, e.g., somebody ki l led the

snake. An intr ansitive verbdoes not require a direct object, e.g.,he died.


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Dynamic and Stative Verbs

The verbs which describe action are called dynamic verbs. Thesecan be used with continuous tenses. There are other verbs which

describe state or a situation and are called stative verbs. They

cannot normally be used with continuous tenses.

Examplesof dynamic verbs: hit, kill, fight, run, go, throw, explode,

write, etc.

Examplesof stative verbs: be, like, love, prefer, impress, hear, see,

sound, belong to, consist of, need, appear, resemble, seem, etc.


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Regular and Irregular Verbs

Regular verbs: base, past tense, past participle

Examples

Cook, cooked, cooked

Clean, cleaned, cleaned

Water, watered, watered

Irregular verbs: base, past tense, past participle

Examples

Do, did, done

Eat, ate, eaten

Drink, drank, drunk


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Exercise

Identify the verbs in the following sentences, as transitiveor

intransitive.

1. The children are flying kites in the sky.

2. Planes are flying in the sky.

3. He is a man of letters; he writes quite well.

4. He wrote a letter to his beloved.

5. Always speak the truth


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Answers

1. Transitive

2. Intransitive

3. Intransitive

4. Transitive5. Transitive


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Adverbs

Examples Zaheer Khan is a fastbowler.

He bowls fast.

But he does not bowl very fast.

He bowls moderately fast.

Jatin is my fastfriend.


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Exercise

Given below are sentences which choose different adverbs oradverbial phrases. Identify them and define their types:

1. I have not seen him lately.

2. He therefore could not achieve success.3. She moved around quite sprightly.

4. The refugees slept fretfully in the tent.

5. Probably, he has gone to the market.


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Answers

1. I have not seen him lately.

(lately; adverb of time)

2. He therefore could not achieve success.

( therefore; adverb of reason)

3. She moved around quite sprightly.( around; adverb of place)

4. The refugees slept fretfully in the tent.

(fretfully; adverb of manner)

5. Probably, he has gone to the market.(probably; adverb of certainty)


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Exercise

Read the following sentences and see if the adverbs are rightly

placed. Rewrite the sentences if required.

1. He looks often sad and gloomy these days.

2. Doctors have reported that now one can have cancer also due todepression.

3. She is intelligent enough to marry a fool like you.

4. He has been to Kashmir never before.

5. The committee has been already informed about the incidence.


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Answers

1. He often looks sad and gloomy these days.

2. Doctors have now reported that one can have cancer also due

to depression.

3. She is intelligent enough not to marry a fool like you.

4. He has never been to Kashmir before.5. The committee has already been informed about the

incidence.


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Modals

The words such as can, could, may, might, will, would, shall,should, must, and ought to are called modals.

Examples

1. It may rain today.2. It might rain today.

3. It will rain today.

4. I can lift this box.

5. I could lift this box.


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May and Might; Can and Could

When I was young, I ________ swim very well.

______ you live long.

You ______ leave now. ______ I, Sir?

______ you solve this sum for me? Though its quite late, it ______ just be fine even if we

reach now.

_______ you help me cross the road?


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Answers

1.When I was young, I could swim very well.(Could for reference to the capability in the past)

2. May you live long!

(May for wishes)

3.You may leave now. May I, Sir?

(May for seeking and giving permission. Can also possible in

informal speech)

4. Could/Can you solve this sum for me?

(Could for polite request; Can somewhat impertinent)

5. Though its quite late, it might just be fine even if we reach now.

(Might for expressing slight hope)


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Shall, Should and Will, Would

Look at the following sentences and try to figure out which of

the modals out of the given options will suit the purpose

according to the context.

1. Will/Shall/Should I open the door for you?

2. Be sincere lest you would/should/may fail miserably in life.

3. She told me that she will/should/would turn twenty six next

month.


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Answers

1. Shall I open the door for you?

(Shall Iare used to know the willingness of the person

addressed)

2. Be sincere lest you should fail miserably in life.

(Lestmeaning so that it does not happenis followed byshould)

3.She told me that she would turn twenty six next month.

(In indirect narration, wil lbecomes would)


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Must, Should, and Ought to

The modalsmust, ought to, and shouldare used to express

concepts of obligation, necessity, duty, advice, suggestion,

command, expectation, etc.


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Exercise

Fill in the blanks with appropriate modals.

1. I ________ leave; I am getting late.

2. ________ that I were selected Miss India!

3. What is the point in crying over the spilt milk? You ______have listened to us earlier!

4. I ______ leave for America next month.

5. Leave it; I _______ do this for you.


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Answers

1. Have to/Must

2. Would

3. Ought to/Should

4. Am

5. Will


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Exercise

Choose appropriate modal for the following expressions: Living in such shanties should be/ must be so difficult!

Mustnt you have/Couldnt you have informed us about it in

time?

Would/May you suggest me some more names?

He could/used to be a fun loving guy before marriage.

He said I should/might come at any time.


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Answers

1. Must be

2. Couldnt you have

3. Would

4. Used to be

5. Might


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Prepositions

Look at the italicized words in the following sentences:

Majestic, the super boar, loves traveling byair.

Pussy, the cute cat, sat onthe table.

Champion, the pampered dog, sat inthe car.

Petty, the tiny mouse, hid underthechair.

Prepositions are the words placed before a noun or a pronoun toshow the relation or connection with the remaining part(s) ofthe sentence.


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Important Points to Remember

Using prepositions correctly is not always as easy as it

sounds and many a time, errors are caused in sentences due

to wrong choice of prepositions in a sentence.

Since prepositions relate more to collocations than to rules,

it would be more appropriate to learn them with the help of

examples.


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Let us see if you can make out the errors that are caused by wrongchoice of prepositions in the following sentences:

See you in Christmas.

Applications must reach the Registrars Office on 31st May.

You must be home before twelve oclock.

See you on the theatre. I will discuss this issue on tomorrow.

On last Sunday, we went on a picnic.

When I listened to him, I found him quite boring.

What are doing? I am searching my mobile.

For many years, Foxy lived at Delhi; now she is at Jaipur.

The Gujarat Earthquake registered 8.1 in the Richter scale.

Exercise


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Correct Usage

See you at Christmas. Applications must reach the Registrars Office by 31st May.

You must be home by twelve oclock.

See you at the theatre.

I will discuss this issue tomorrow.

Last Sunday, we went on a picnic. When I listened to him, I found him quite boring.

What are doing? I am searching for my mobile.

For many years, Foxy lived in Delhi; now she is in Jaipur.

The Gujarat Earthquake registered 8.1 on the Richter scale

At Times Only a Particular


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At Times Only a Particular

Preposition Follows Certain Verbs

Choose Between Correct Usage

He is endowed with wonderful

creative talent.

On a foreign tour, players have to

adapt to the changed climatic

conditions.

I am really grateful to you for all

your support.

New meanings can always be

derived from good writings.

He was quite poorly judged by his

teachers.

He is endowed by/with

wonderful creative talent.

On a foreign tour, players

have to adapt with/to the

changed climatic conditions.

I am really grateful to/for you

to/for all your support.

New meanings can always be

derived from/on good

writings.

He was quite poorly judged

with/by his teachers.

Contd


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Contd

Choose Between Correct Usage

The Congress has recently beenprofited by infightings in the

BJP.

Though a rebel to the core before

marriage, he now is confined to

his wife and kids. The Prime Minister was apprised

of the latest incidents in the riot-

hit areas.

The Speakers timely

intervention prevented themembers from coming to blows

with each other.

He just cant help it; he is

addicted to wine.

The Congress has recently beenprofited with/by infightings in the

BJP.

Though a rebel to the core before

marriage, he now is confined

with/to his wife and kids.

The Prime Minister was apprised

with/of the latest incidents in the

riot-hit areas.

The Speakers timely

intervention prevented the

members from/of coming toblows with each other.

He just cant help it; he is

addicted with/to wine.

S t d it T


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Sentence and its Types

A sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense.

Example

1. The boy sang a song in the class.

PhraseA group of words that makes partial sense and does not have a

subject and predicate of its own is called a phrase.

Example

sang a song in the class.

Exercise


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Exercise

Now, choose the right prepositions in each of the following sentencesand tally your answers with those given in the answer key:

When we watch a tragedy, we are overcome in/with emotions. Having been caught using unfair means, he was debarred

from/with sitting for/in the examinations of/for three years.

Despite all the rumours, we are quite confident about/of securinga win.

Many members abstained with/from casting their votes.

The captain attributed his victory to/on his team.

You need to apologize for/to her immediately.

The poem refers with/to the mythical allusions.

He was disgusted at/with the idea for/of having to change hischilds diapers on/in his wifes absence.

If you are ignorant of/about everything, you are likely to fail inlife.

He sounded particularly obliged to/for his family members.


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Connectives

Connectives are the words such as and, but, af ter, because,

though, as, wherein, whereupon, for, unless, lest, whi le,

whereas, etc. These are also called conjunctions.

Some of these connectives are known as CoordinatingConjunctionsand some others are called Subordinating

Conjunctions.

: To distinguish the Coordinating Conjunction


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:To distinguish the Coordinating Conjunctionfrom a Subordinating Conjunction, look at the

following sentences

Ashe was not well, he could not come to the meeting.

(The conjunction asconnects the subordinate clause As he was notwell, to the main clause he could not come to the meeting;hence aSubordinating Conjunction)

He was not well andhe could not come to the meeting.

(The conjunction andconnects two independent clauses he was notwelland he could notcometo the meeting; hence a CoordinatingConjunction)

Unlessyou solve sums, you cannot feel confident in Mathematics.

(The conjunction unlessconnects a subordinating clause unlessyou solve sumsto the main clause you cannot feel conf ident in

Mathematics;hence a Subordinating Conjunction) She was not beautiful butshe looked attractive in that dress.

(The conjunction butconnects two independent clauses she was notbeautifuland shelooked attractive in that dress;hence aCoordinating Conjunction)


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Main Coordinating Conjunctions:

And, but, or, also, eitheror, neithernor, etc.

Main Subordinating Conjunctions:Though, although, as, when, unless, while, because, etc.

Contd

Incorrect Correct


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1. Hardly I had entered the room, when

the phone rang.

2. He neither appeared prepared or

confident while speaking.

3. You must work hard lest you should

not fail.

4. Not only he is stupid but stubborn as

well.

5. Such rituals are seldom or ever

observed in America.6. She not only makes errors, but she

does not also admit them.

7. No sooner we had boarded the train,

it started to move.

8. He is a greater scholar; he always

speaks like an expert.

9. We can either speak our mind or can

keep quiet in such situations.

10. He is in a fix; he cannot either leave

his job nor can do it well.

1. Hardly had I entered the room, when

the phone rang.

2. He appeared neither prepared for the

interview nor confident while

speaking.

3. You must work hard lest you should

fail.

4. He is not only stupid but also

stubborn. (OR) Not only is he stupid

but also stubborn.5. Such rituals are seldom or never

observed in America.

6. She not only makes errors, but also

does not admit them.

7. No sooner had we boarded the train,

than it started to move.

8. He is a greater scholar; he always

speaks as an expert.

9. We can either speak our mind or keep

quiet in such situations.

10. He is in a fix; he can neither leave his

job nor do it well.


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Contd.

A group of words that forms a part of a sentence and alsohas a subject and predicate of its own is called a clause.

Example

When we reached home, it was midnight.when we reached home, too seems to make complete sense, but

it is not as complete as the other part - it was midnight - is.

Even then, it has a subject (we), a verb (reached) an object

(home) and an adverb (when). So both these parts are

clauses.

Diff b t


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Difference between

whereuponand wherein

Desdemona drops her handkerchiefwhereuponIago misuses

it.

The conjunction whereuponmeans immediatelyafterwards, whereinmeans in place.

Diff b t i f


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Difference between even if

and even though

They allowed me to continue the diploma even thoughI had

failed in the first two papers.

Even i fis only conditional whereas even thoughisconcessional.

Diff b t hi l


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Difference between whi le

and whereas

He is idiotic whereashis wife is quite intelligent.

I met him while I was going to college.

The conjunction whilesuggests a simultaneous action whereas

the conjunction whereasis written to bring out the contrast.

Difference between Despite


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Difference between Despite

and In sp i te o f

Despitethe fact that he has five daughters, he is not worried.

OR

I n spite ofthe fact that he has five daughters, he is not worried.

The conjunction despiteis not followed by ofthough in spiteis

Types of Sentences (based


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Types of Sentences (based

on Sense)Sentence

Assertive

or

Declarative

Imperative Interrogative

NegativeExclamatory

Contd


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Contd

Assertive or Declarative Sentences

Example

Cassius does his work on time.

Negative Sentences

Example

Catherine does not do her work on time.

Interrogative Sentences

ExampleDoes Brutus do his work on time?


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Contd

Imperative Sentences

Example

Antony, do you work on time!

Exclamatory SentencesExample

You too, Brutus! Then Caesar must die!

Types of Sentence (based


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Types of Sentence (based

on structure)

Sentence

Simple Complex Compound

Contd


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Contd

Simple Sentence

Example

I ndia won the match.

Compound Sentence

Example

We tr ied hard but we could not win the match.

Complex Sentence

Example

Although we tr ied hard, we could not win the match

E i


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Exercise

Read the following sentences and state whether they aredeclarative, exclamatory, imperative, interrogative, or

negative.

1. Help us, please.

2. We dont like such things.

3. What a shame!

4. Be quiet.

5. He was stabbed in the party.

A


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Answers

1. Imperative2. Negative

3. Exclamatory

4. Imperative

5. Declarative

Exercise


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Exercise

Read the following expressions and state which of the them are

compound sentences and which others are complex

sentences.

1. All are equal but some are more equal than others.

2. You must go or I shall slap you.3. When we reached back it was quite dark.

4. Show me the place where he was killed.

5. They always claim who never achieve.

Answers


82/83


Answers

1. Compound

2. Compound

3. Complex

4. Complex

5. Complex


83/83

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