2011 Comparative Linguistics ENGL 4371 Dr. Mosheer Amer 2011.

Comparative LinguisticsENGL 4371

Dr. Mosheer Amer

20112011

Lecturer: Dr Mosheer AmerLecturer: Dr Mosheer Amer

My background is in linguistics, Critical My background is in linguistics, Critical Discourse Analysis, and TESOL. I have Discourse Analysis, and TESOL. I have studied in Palestine, the USA and Australia. studied in Palestine, the USA and Australia.

o BA English, Al-Azhar University – GazaBA English, Al-Azhar University – Gazao MA TESOL , ST. Michael’s College, Vermont, MA TESOL , ST. Michael’s College, Vermont,

USA, 2003USA, 2003o Ph.D. Linguistics, The University of Ph.D. Linguistics, The University of

Melbourne, Australia, 2009Melbourne, Australia, 2009

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My primary research interests: My primary research interests:

Critical discourse analysis Critical discourse analysis Language, identity and nationalismLanguage, identity and nationalism News Media Discourse News Media Discourse

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Course ObjectivesCourse Objectives

At the end of this course, students willAt the end of this course, students will

1.1. have developed a thorough understanding of key have developed a thorough understanding of key concepts in the linguistic systems of Arabic and Englishconcepts in the linguistic systems of Arabic and English

2.2. have understood the main similarities and differences in have understood the main similarities and differences in both languages’ structures (e.g. phonetics, phonology, both languages’ structures (e.g. phonetics, phonology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics) syntax, semantics and pragmatics)

3.3. have located problematic areas and points of negative have located problematic areas and points of negative transfer that may arise due to differences between the transfer that may arise due to differences between the two language systemstwo language systems

4.4. have reflected on and identified ways to remedy have reflected on and identified ways to remedy problems that Palestinian EFL learners face in their problems that Palestinian EFL learners face in their learning processlearning process

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AssessmentAssessment

Midterm Exam 20% Final Exam 60% Project 20%

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Required TextbookRequired Textbook

Issues in Comparative LinguisticsIssues in Comparative Linguistics (2007) by Dr Walid Amer(2007) by Dr Walid Amer

Recommended readings:Recommended readings:Todd, L. (1987). Todd, L. (1987). An introduction to An introduction to

linguisticslinguistics. London: Longman.. London: Longman.A selection of readings and handouts A selection of readings and handouts

will be circulated throughout the will be circulated throughout the course.course.

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What do we mean when we say “language”? What do we mean when we say “language”?

1.1. LangLang1: 1: a representation system known by human beings: a representation system known by human beings: Human language Human language as a general property of human lifeas a general property of human life, very , very much like vision and hearing (an abstract, uncountable much like vision and hearing (an abstract, uncountable noun). In this sense, language is used in the discussion of noun). In this sense, language is used in the discussion of whether other species use language. whether other species use language.

2.2. LangLang2: 2: an abstraction describing one particular group of an abstraction describing one particular group of people, often a nation, rather than another – ‘the English people, often a nation, rather than another – ‘the English language’, ‘the French language’, etc. language’, ‘the French language’, etc.

3.3. LangLang33: a set of sentences – everything that has been or could : a set of sentences – everything that has been or could be said – ‘the language of the Bible’ or ‘the language a be said – ‘the language of the Bible’ or ‘the language a learner produces’, etc. learner produces’, etc.

(cited in in Cook, 2008: 16)(cited in in Cook, 2008: 16)

What do we mean when we say “language”? What do we mean when we say “language”? Cont’d Cont’d

4. Lang4. Lang44: the possession of a community – ‘the : the possession of a community – ‘the

language used for relating to other people; language used for relating to other people; something that is used for social reasons as something that is used for social reasons as part of society; language as a means of part of society; language as a means of communication and serving social functions. communication and serving social functions.

5. Lang5. Lang55: the psychological knowledge in the : the psychological knowledge in the

mind of an individual – ‘I have learned mind of an individual – ‘I have learned French as a foreign language for eight years’French as a foreign language for eight years’

Some more definitions! Some more definitions! Language is a symbolic system linking what goes on inside

our heads with what goes on outside. It mediates between self and society. It is a form of representation, a way of representing the world to ourselves and to others. (Barton, Barton, 1994)1994)

Languages are not purely linguistic entities. They serve social functions. In order to define a language, it is important to look to its social and political functions, as well as its linguistic features. So a language can be thought of as a collection of dialects that are usually linguistically similar, used by different social groups who choose to say that they are speakers of one language, which functions to unite and represent groups (Holmes, 1992)

Language and culture: The language sideLanguage and culture: The language side

Members of the same cultural group share rules as to Members of the same cultural group share rules as to how language should be used, i.e., there’s a tacit how language should be used, i.e., there’s a tacit agreement about the meaning of linguistic signsagreement about the meaning of linguistic signs

These rules include: These rules include: rules of the formal language system: phonetics, rules of the formal language system: phonetics,

morphology, syntax, semantics morphology, syntax, semantics rules of language use: what is situationally rules of language use: what is situationally

appropriate, what politeness level should be used in appropriate, what politeness level should be used in what context? That is, what context? That is, what what do you say do you say when when and and to to whomwhom??

rules of interpretation: when someone says/does X, rules of interpretation: when someone says/does X, what do they want to express?what do they want to express?

The individual culture member The individual culture member internalizes these rules subconsciously internalizes these rules subconsciously and just perceives them as and just perceives them as ““normalnormal””, , ““this this is how people are supposed to act!is how people are supposed to act!””. .

An outsider entering the new culture An outsider entering the new culture may not be aware of (all) these rules and may not be aware of (all) these rules and is likely to transfer rules from his/her is likely to transfer rules from his/her own culture without being aware of themown culture without being aware of them

If two culturesIf two cultures’’ rules differ or are rules differ or are contradictory, misunderstanding may contradictory, misunderstanding may occuroccur

What is linguistics? What is linguistics?

Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It seeks Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It seeks to answer the questions: what is language and how is it to answer the questions: what is language and how is it represented in the mind and how does it function in represented in the mind and how does it function in society? Linguists focus on describing and explaining society? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language. language.

The underlying goal of the linguist is to try to discover The underlying goal of the linguist is to try to discover the universals concerning language. That is, what are the universals concerning language. That is, what are the common elements in all languages. The linguist the common elements in all languages. The linguist then tries to place these elements in a theoretical then tries to place these elements in a theoretical framework that will describe all languages and also framework that will describe all languages and also predict what can not occur in a language.predict what can not occur in a language.

What are some key linguistic terms used to describe the What are some key linguistic terms used to describe the

following features of language?following features of language?

Prosody: tone, pitch, word and sentence stress, tempoProsody: tone, pitch, word and sentence stress, tempo

Phonetics & phonology Phonetics & phonology

Word forms: MorphologyWord forms: Morphology

Syntax: sentence structures including word orderSyntax: sentence structures including word order

Semantics: the ways in which meaning is constructed through wordsSemantics: the ways in which meaning is constructed through words

Pragmatics: The influence of context on language Pragmatics: The influence of context on language

Sound – Phonetics & PhonologySound – Phonetics & Phonology

Phonetics describes the sounds that occur Phonetics describes the sounds that occur in the human language; phonology is the in the human language; phonology is the study of the sound system of a particular study of the sound system of a particular languagelanguage

Phoneticians describe the place and Phoneticians describe the place and manner of articulation of sounds, e.g., /b/ manner of articulation of sounds, e.g., /b/ as in as in ‘‘buybuy’’ is a is a voiced bilabial stopvoiced bilabial stop

The phonetic alphabet is used for detailed The phonetic alphabet is used for detailed transcriptions of spoken language, e.g., transcriptions of spoken language, e.g., ““buybuy”” /ba /baII//

Sentence level intonation and stress are Sentence level intonation and stress are also investigated, e.g., also investigated, e.g., ‘‘I canI can’’t beLIEVE itt beLIEVE it’’, , ‘‘PROcessPROcess’’ vs. proCESS vs. proCESS’’

Languages differ in the sounds and Languages differ in the sounds and sound combinations that occur, for sound combinations that occur, for example:example: French doesnFrench doesn’’t have t have /θ//θ/ sound like English sound like English Arabic does not have /p/ soundArabic does not have /p/ sound English does not have kh /x/ soundEnglish does not have kh /x/ sound You can not start a word in English with a You can not start a word in English with a

/ng/ sound/ng/ sound English does not have tones (as in Chinese)English does not have tones (as in Chinese) Japanese does not have consonant clusters Japanese does not have consonant clusters

((‘‘McDonaldMcDonald’’)) Malay has a 6-vowel system, English has a 12-Malay has a 6-vowel system, English has a 12-

vowel system, Punjabi has a 20- vowel systemvowel system, Punjabi has a 20- vowel system

Languages differ in the use of voice Languages differ in the use of voice contour (prosody) and what it means, contour (prosody) and what it means, e.g.,e.g., Suggestions in English are expressed with Suggestions in English are expressed with

a rising intonation (a rising intonation (““coffee?coffee?””) whereas in ) whereas in some South Asian languages it has a some South Asian languages it has a falling intonationfalling intonation

A statement can be turned into a question A statement can be turned into a question through rising intonation in many Indo-through rising intonation in many Indo-European languages but not in Chinese European languages but not in Chinese MandarinMandarin

Words - MorphologyWords - Morphology Morphology looks at the rules for making wordsMorphology looks at the rules for making words Morphemes are the smallest lexical units that Morphemes are the smallest lexical units that

carry meaning; these can be words (carry meaning; these can be words (‘‘treetree’’) or ) or single letters (e.g., plural -s in English: tree -> single letters (e.g., plural -s in English: tree -> trees)trees)

Languages differ in how words are made, Languages differ in how words are made, combined, and altered and what features have combined, and altered and what features have meaning, e.g, meaning, e.g, Many languages such as French and German change verb endings Many languages such as French and German change verb endings

depending on person (I / you (singular) / he-she-it / we / you (plural) depending on person (I / you (singular) / he-she-it / we / you (plural) / they) / they)

English attaches –s only to verbs for 3English attaches –s only to verbs for 3rdrd person singular person singular Chinese does not alter verbs for person at allChinese does not alter verbs for person at all Japanese adds morphemes to increase the formality level of verbsJapanese adds morphemes to increase the formality level of verbs

Grammar - SyntaxGrammar - Syntax Studies of syntax look at sentence structure and formationStudies of syntax look at sentence structure and formation Languages differ in their basic word order, e.g.,Languages differ in their basic word order, e.g.,

woman ate chocolate (SVO)woman ate chocolate (SVO) woman chocolate ate (SOV) woman chocolate ate (SOV) chocolate woman ate (OSV)chocolate woman ate (OSV) ate woman chocolate. (VSO) ate woman chocolate. (VSO)

Languages differ in how Languages differ in how fixed or flexiblefixed or flexible their word order their word order is, e.g.,is, e.g., Der Hund beisst den Mann. = Den Mann beisst der Der Hund beisst den Mann. = Den Mann beisst der

Hund. (German)Hund. (German) The dog bites the man. The dog bites the man. The man bites the dog. The man bites the dog.

(English(English))

Meaning - SemanticsMeaning - Semantics Languages differ in the range of meanings a word Languages differ in the range of meanings a word

covers. covers. There’s no inherent relationship between the form There’s no inherent relationship between the form

of a word and the meaning it carries, e.g., there’s of a word and the meaning it carries, e.g., there’s no inherent reason why a chair must be called no inherent reason why a chair must be called ‘chair’ or ‘Stuhl’ or ‘chaise’ or ‘kursi ‘chair’ or ‘Stuhl’ or ‘chaise’ or ‘kursi كرسيكرسي’’

Word meaning relationships: polysemy (foot, Word meaning relationships: polysemy (foot, mouth), antonyms, synonyms, hyponyms (Jasmine mouth), antonyms, synonyms, hyponyms (Jasmine ---flower), homophones (pear/pair, flower/flour). ---flower), homophones (pear/pair, flower/flour).

Word combinations: collocations (Word combinations: collocations (handsome man handsome man but pretty woman )but pretty woman )

Pragmatics: Meaning in context/How language is Pragmatics: Meaning in context/How language is used in communicationused in communication

Pragmatics investigates the influence of context on Pragmatics investigates the influence of context on meaning; that is, how speakers express themselves meaning; that is, how speakers express themselves linguistically to get what they want.linguistically to get what they want.

Speakers have to knowSpeakers have to know the conventions that a culture applies in the conventions that a culture applies in

general (taboos, social rules, views of general (taboos, social rules, views of interpersonal relations) and in specific interpersonal relations) and in specific situations (how you are supposed to behave situations (how you are supposed to behave with strangers, a superior, family)with strangers, a superior, family)

What social rules and relations and What social rules and relations and situational contexts influence how people situational contexts influence how people behave (request; politeness; social behave (request; politeness; social hierarchy) hierarchy)

Cultures differ in the analysis of social Cultures differ in the analysis of social relations and context factors, e.g., relations and context factors, e.g., To what extent is your teacher entitled to respect?To what extent is your teacher entitled to respect? What age difference makes the interlocutor clearly What age difference makes the interlocutor clearly

senior and deserving of respect: 1 week, 1 year, 5 years, senior and deserving of respect: 1 week, 1 year, 5 years, 10 years, 20 years?10 years, 20 years?

Cultures differ in required Cultures differ in required politeness/directness levels and how it politeness/directness levels and how it is all encoded linguistically is all encoded linguistically (power, (power, distance distance andand level of imposition level of imposition), e.g.,), e.g., How do you speak to friends / teachers / parents / your How do you speak to friends / teachers / parents / your

boss…?boss…? Hierarchical differences are marked through changing Hierarchical differences are marked through changing

verb morphology in Japanese, French and German, but verb morphology in Japanese, French and German, but through greater use of modals and hedging in English, through greater use of modals and hedging in English, e.g., e.g., “I’m“I’m terribly sorry to bother youterribly sorry to bother you but but do you thinkdo you think you you could possiblycould possibly help me with this?” help me with this?”

Linguistic CompetenceLinguistic Competence

Linguistic CompetenceLinguistic Competence (stored mental (stored mental knowledge; language as system and rule-knowledge; language as system and rule-governed) governed) produce an unlimited number of grammatical produce an unlimited number of grammatical

sentences that he/she has not encountered before, sentences that he/she has not encountered before, understand an unlimited number of sentences understand an unlimited number of sentences

belonging to his/her native language never belonging to his/her native language never encountered before, encountered before,

pass grammaticality judgment on NL sentences pass grammaticality judgment on NL sentences which he/she encounters, which he/she encounters,

Colourless green ideas sleep furiously Colourless green ideas sleep furiously identify ambiguous sentences and provide identify ambiguous sentences and provide

interpretations for such sentencesinterpretations for such sentencesWe need more intelligent leadersWe need more intelligent leadersThe statistician studied the whole yearThe statistician studied the whole year

Linguistic Competence vs. Communicative CompetenceLinguistic Competence vs. Communicative Competence

Communicative competence (Hymes 1971): Communicative competence (Hymes 1971):

The speaker’s ability to produce appropriate The speaker’s ability to produce appropriate utterancesutterances not not grammatical sentencesgrammatical sentences since the since the basic function of language is “meaningful basic function of language is “meaningful communication” amongst speakers of the same communication” amongst speakers of the same speech community. speech community.

AppropriatenessAppropriateness: whether and to what extent : whether and to what extent something is suitable and effective in some something is suitable and effective in some context. context.

Linguistic Competence vs. Communicative CompetenceLinguistic Competence vs. Communicative Competence

A: What is your name? A: What is your name?

B: Well, let us say you might have B: Well, let us say you might have thought you had something from thought you had something from before, but you havenbefore, but you haven’’t got it t got it anymore. anymore.

A: I am going to call you Sam.A: I am going to call you Sam.

Activity 4Activity 4 For each of the following, suggest one possible context and who For each of the following, suggest one possible context and who

might be speaking to who. What might be the speaker’s purpose. might be speaking to who. What might be the speaker’s purpose.

Sentence Sentence Possible ContextPossible ContextWho?Who?Possible meaning Possible meaning

‘‘Phew. It’s Phew. It’s cold in here.’cold in here.’

‘‘The fish is The fish is very good very good today.’today.’

‘‘Well, actually Well, actually I’m a bit busy I’m a bit busy at this at this moment.’moment.’

Activity 5Activity 5 What is the relationship of the speakers in the following What is the relationship of the speakers in the following

conversation? Keeping as much of the original meaning as conversation? Keeping as much of the original meaning as possible, change the dialog to make it sound like a natural possible, change the dialog to make it sound like a natural exchange between 1- close friends, 2- parent and young child. exchange between 1- close friends, 2- parent and young child.

A- I’m sorry to interrupt, but I was wondering if you A- I’m sorry to interrupt, but I was wondering if you wanted to break for lunch yet? wanted to break for lunch yet?

B- I’m afraid I’m still rather busy. But thank you very B- I’m afraid I’m still rather busy. But thank you very much for asking. much for asking.

A- Perhaps I’ll see you in the restaurant later.A- Perhaps I’ll see you in the restaurant later.

B- Yes. That would be nice.B- Yes. That would be nice.

Language and Society Language and Society Language changes with the passing of time. Language changes with the passing of time.

Shakespeare’s English is different from English used Shakespeare’s English is different from English used now. This also applied to Arabic.now. This also applied to Arabic.

The same language used in various regions also The same language used in various regions also changes and with time changes and with time dialects (dialects (((لهجاتلهجات appear which appear which differ slightly or greatly from each other.differ slightly or greatly from each other.

Variations happen at all levels of language structures Variations happen at all levels of language structures among dialects (e.g. the letter among dialects (e.g. the letter ((قق

Language and Society Language and Society

A A standard languagestandard language appears in order to maintain mutual appears in order to maintain mutual intelligibility and communication in each country, intelligibility and communication in each country, especially for writing purposes and in formal situations especially for writing purposes and in formal situations (e.g. BBC in Britian, MSA in Arab countries)(e.g. BBC in Britian, MSA in Arab countries)

Colloquial languageColloquial language is different in some way from highly is different in some way from highly educated people.educated people.

Lingua FrancaLingua Franca appears in countries where people speak appears in countries where people speak different languages. One language is agreed upon as the different languages. One language is agreed upon as the language used in government and in official and business language used in government and in official and business dealings, e.g. (Hindi in India, Urdu in Pakistan, English is dealings, e.g. (Hindi in India, Urdu in Pakistan, English is the “official” language of the world. the “official” language of the world.

Language Universals Language Universals 1.1. All language sounds are the result of a very limited number of All language sounds are the result of a very limited number of

vocal organs.vocal organs.2.2. All languages have consonant and vowel sounds.All languages have consonant and vowel sounds.3.3. All languages have plosive sounds and fricative sounds.All languages have plosive sounds and fricative sounds.4.4. All languages have ways of referring to time.All languages have ways of referring to time.5.5. All languages have ways of referring to "one" or more than All languages have ways of referring to "one" or more than

"one" (singular & plural)"one" (singular & plural)6.6. All languages have rules for building parts of the sentences All languages have rules for building parts of the sentences

(phrase structure rules).(phrase structure rules).7.7. All languages have a set of transformational rules that change All languages have a set of transformational rules that change

positive into negative, the interrogative, the passive, etc.positive into negative, the interrogative, the passive, etc.8.8. If the language has gender categories in the noun (male or If the language has gender categories in the noun (male or

female), it has gender category for the pronoun.female), it has gender category for the pronoun.9.9. Languages with the dominate word order (verb-subject-object) Languages with the dominate word order (verb-subject-object)

have the adjective after the noun (as is the case in Arabic). have the adjective after the noun (as is the case in Arabic).

What should be the goal of language What should be the goal of language

teaching/learning?teaching/learning? To help people think better, i.e. for brain To help people think better, i.e. for brain

training and logical thinkingtraining and logical thinking To appreciate literature and other To appreciate literature and other

culturescultures To increase self-awareness and maturity To increase self-awareness and maturity To communicate with other peopleTo communicate with other people To promote specific cultural, political To promote specific cultural, political

valuesvalues etcetc

Contrastive linguistics (CL) Contrastive linguistics (CL) CL is concerned with comparing two languages for purposes of CL is concerned with comparing two languages for purposes of

identifying similarities and differences which hold between them identifying similarities and differences which hold between them

as well as potential areas of learning problems.as well as potential areas of learning problems. Interest in CL originated in the U.S. during WWII due an Interest in CL originated in the U.S. during WWII due an

urgent need to learn/teach foreign languages.urgent need to learn/teach foreign languages. Fries (1945) and Lado (1957): (1) differences between Fries (1945) and Lado (1957): (1) differences between

the 2 languages compared cause difficulties for the the 2 languages compared cause difficulties for the learner of L2. learner of L2.

(2) Interference (negative transfer) from L1 to L2 is a (2) Interference (negative transfer) from L1 to L2 is a major source of learning errors. major source of learning errors.

One can predict areas of learning difficulties on the basis One can predict areas of learning difficulties on the basis of contrasts identified in the process of comparing the of contrasts identified in the process of comparing the two langs. two langs.

Negative Transfer Negative Transfer Positive transfer occurs when L1 and L2 have similar systems Positive transfer occurs when L1 and L2 have similar systems

or features. or features. Negative transfer occurs when L1 and L2 have different Negative transfer occurs when L1 and L2 have different

systems or features. CL is interested in this type. systems or features. CL is interested in this type. Later studies: Later studies: about one thirdabout one third of learning errors (problems) are of learning errors (problems) are

attributed to interference from L1. attributed to interference from L1. Interlingual errorsInterlingual errors: in which errors are external results out : in which errors are external results out

of the negative interference, e.g., learners apply Arabic rules of the negative interference, e.g., learners apply Arabic rules when using English language. when using English language.

Intralingual errors:Intralingual errors: the error is internal and comes out of the the error is internal and comes out of the difficulty of the language itself.difficulty of the language itself.

Developmental errors are as important to L2 learning as Developmental errors are as important to L2 learning as interference errors. interference errors.

Error analysis: the learner acquires the L2 by testing Error analysis: the learner acquires the L2 by testing hypotheses about the systems of L2.hypotheses about the systems of L2.

What to do for next classWhat to do for next class ? ?

Consult relevant readings on English Phonetics. Consult relevant readings on English Phonetics.

You are encouraged to visit the library and do readings on You are encouraged to visit the library and do readings on phonetics. phonetics.

Salamz Salamz

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