200 Level Gsp Moral Philosophy Notes

7/27/2019 200 Level Gsp Moral Philosophy Notes

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/200-level-gsp-moral-philosophy-notes 1/27

e-lecture series NOT FOR SALE 1

INTRODUCTION TO MORAL PHILOSOPHY

By:

Dr. Mamman Sunusi

[email protected]

Defining Philosophy

Philosophy comes from the Greek for "love of wisdom," giving us two important

starting points: passion and wisdom (knowledge, understanding). Philosophy

sometimes seems to be pursued without passion as if it were a technical subject like

engineering or mathematics. Although there is a role for dispassionate research,

philosophy must derive from some passion for the ultimate goal: a reliable, accurate

understanding ourselves and our world. Philosophy is the study of general problems

concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, truth, beauty, law, justice, validity,

mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing

these questions (such as mysticism or mythology) by its critical, generally systematic

approach and its reliance on reasoned argument.

Philosophy develops the capacity to see the world from the perspective of other

individuals and other cultures; it enhances one's ability to perceive the relationships

among the various fields of study; and it deepens one's sense of the meaning and

variety of human experience. Most people are aware that the term is derived from

two Greek words: philo (love) and sophia (wisdom). Philosophy, then, literally means

"the love of wisdom." We each have a sense of what love means, but what exactly is

wisdom? Although there are many different ideas about what wisdom is, we can

define it as "the proper understanding about the nature of reality." The wise person,

then, has a correct understanding about his own nature, the nature of the universe

and the nature of God. A person is wise, in other words, if he has a correct

understanding about how things actually are and lives his life accordingly.

Philosophy has also been connected with the quest for the truth. The Greek

philosopher Pythagoras, for example, maintained that unlike the other human beings

who are concerned with the hustle and bustle of life, "the philosopher seeks for

truth." The aim of philosophy, however, is not this truth or that truth, my truth or

your truth, but "The Truth". The truth that philosophy searches for is a truth that

mailto:[email protected]






applies to all people at all times. This truth has been referred to as an inspirational

truth, because it is not restricted to individual perceptions of what is true or false.

According to Socrates, philosophy involves a critical examination of reality that is

characterized by rational inquiry. A rational form of inquiry is one that is based

exclusively on sound arguments and not on opinions, feelings or beliefs. Of course,

there is nothing wrong with having opinions, feeling or beliefs about important

matters, but the discipline of philosophy asks us to be in the position to justify why

we hold these opinions, feelings or beliefs. If we want to be engaged in

philosophical discourse, therefore, we need to support our views using logic rather

than emotions. Based upon what has been described above, our working definition

of philosophy will look something like the following: A critical examination of reality

characterized by rational inquiry that aims at the Truth for the sake of attaining

wisdom.

Subfields of Philosophy

The broadest subfields of philosophy are most commonly taken to be logic, ethics,

metaphysics, epistemology and the history of philosophy

.

Here is a brief sketch of each one of them.

Logic is concerned with providing sound methods for distinguishing well from

bad reasoning. It is the study of the principles of right reasoning. Logic is the

basic tool that philosophers use to investigate reality. Among the questions

raised by Logic are: (1) What makes an argument valid or invalid (2) What is a

sound argument? It helps us assess how well our premises support our

conclusions, to see what we are committed to accepting when we take a view,

and to avoid adopting beliefs for which we lack adequate reasons. Logic also

helps us to find arguments where we might otherwise simply see a set of

loosely related statements, to discover assumptions we did not know we were

making, and to formulate the minimum claims we must establish if we are to

prove (or inductively support) our point.




Ethics takes up the meanings of our moral concepts such as right action,

obligation and justice and formulates principles to guide moral decisions,

whether in private or public life. What are our moral obligations to others?

How can moral disagreements be rationally settled? What rights must a just

society accord its citizens? What constitutes a valid excuse for wrong-doing?

Metaphysics (or ontology) is the study of reality. Some of the questions that

Metaphysics deals with are: (1) what is ultimate reality? (2) Is it one thing or is

it many different things? (3) Can reality be grasped by the senses or is it

transcendent? (3) What is the mind and what is its relation to the body? It

seeks basic criteria for determining what sorts of things are real. Are there

mental, physical, and abstract things (such as numbers), for instance, or is

there just the physical and the spiritual, or merely matter and energy? Are

persons highly complex physical systems, or do they have properties not

reducible to anything physical?

Epistemology is the study of knowledge. Among the questions that

Epistemology deals with are: (1) what is knowledge? (2) Is knowledge

acquired exclusively through the senses or by some other means? (3) How

do we know that what we perceive through our senses is correct? (4) what

does it mean to know (the truth), and what is the nature of truth? (5) What

sorts of things can be known, and can we be justified in our beliefs about

what goes beyond the evidence of our senses, such as the inner lives of others

or events of the distant past? Is there knowledge beyond the reach of science?

What are the limits of self-knowledge? Epistemology is the investigation into

the grounds and nature of knowledge itself. The study of epistemology

focuses on our means for acquiring knowledge and how we can differentiate

between truth and falsehood.

Aesthetics is the study of beauty. Among the questions Aesthetics deals with

are: (1) What makes a thing beautiful? (2) Are there any objective standards

of beauty?




The History of Philosophy studies both major philosophers and entire

periods in the development of philosophy such as the Ancient, Medieval,

Modern, Nineteenth Century, and Twentieth Century periods. It seeks to

understand great figures, their influence on others, and their importance for

contemporary issues. The history of philosophy in a single nation is often

separately studied, as in the case of American Philosophy. So are major

movements within a nation, such as British Empiricism and German Idealism,

as well as international movements with a substantial history, such as

existentialism and phenomenology.

Doing Philosophy

The study of philosophy is usually approached in one of two different ways: the

systematic or topical method and the historical or biographical method. Both have

their strengths and weaknesses and it is often beneficial to avoid focusing on one to

the exclusions of the other, at least whenever possible. For irreligious atheists,

though, the focus should probably be more on the topical than on the biographical

method because that will provide clear overviews of relevant issues. What is

morality? How can one behave in a moral manner? These are among the most

difficult and most interesting questions which face people of any age. Today,

however, with advancing technology, difficult moral situations come upon us faster

than we can even create the questions, much less find the answers.

What are Ethics and Morality?

Ethics is the formal study of moral standards and conduct. For this reason, the study

of ethics is also often called "moral philosophy." What is good? What is evil? How

should I behave and why? How should I balance my needs against the needs of

others? These are some of the questions asked in the field of ethics, a branch of

philosophy which has some of the most immediate and obvious consequences for

how we live our lives.

Ethics, Morals, and Values

There are three principle types of values which humans can have: preferential values,

instrumental values and intrinsic values. Each plays an important role in our lives, but




they do not all play equal roles in the formation of moral standards and moral

norms.

Why be concerned with moral theories and distinctions between different types of

moral theories? Why bother with some of the difficult questions which are raised in

meta-ethics? Everyone is brought up with some sort of moral system, and it usually

works out fairly well - isn't that enough? What's the point of bothering further?

Anthropologists and sociologists can provide us with all sorts of information about

how societies past and present have structured moral standards and how they have

expected people to behave. Psychologists can study how a person's conscience

develops and how that person goes about actually making moral choices in real or

hypothetical situations. Descriptive ethics also studies the codes of conduct created

by professional organizations to regulate the conduct of members.

What then is Morality?

Morality is a sense of behavioural conduct that differentiates intentions, decisions,

and actions between those that are good (or right) and bad (or wrong). A moral code

is a system of morality (for example, according to a particular philosophy, religion,

culture, etc.) and a moral is any one practice or teaching within a moral code.

Immorality is the active opposition to morality, while amorality is variously defined

as an unawareness of, indifference toward, or disbelief in any set of moral standards

or principles

Morality is about mentoring the society on good and bad actions. It is exhibiting

goodness or correctness of character and behaviour. However, let us examine

morality based on its relative nature

a) Morality is concerned with the judgment of the goodness or badness of

human action and character: moral scrutiny; a moral quandary.

b) Morality is about principles of right and wrong or conforming to standards of

behaviour and character based on those principles

c) Morality is adhering to ethical and moral principles

d) Morality is arising from the sense of right and wrong

e) Morality is psychological rather than physical or tangible in effect and




f) Morality is based on strong likelihood or firm conviction rather than actual

evidence.

Exhibiting goodness or correctness of character and behaviour: a moral lesson,

conforming to standards of what is right in behaviour is virtuous hence a moral life;

which arises from conscience or the sense of right and wrong: a moral obligation;

having psychological rather than physical or tangible effects: a moral victory; moral

support which should be based on strong likelihood or firm conviction, rather than

on the actual evidence.

Objectives of teaching morality

Based on the need to have a sound society which accepts and tolerate everyone

without prejudice, morality aspires to achieve the following objectives:

1) to guide the individual to the perfection of personality through improvement

and maintenance of discipline among youth in higher institutions

2) to guide youth towards developing good character necessary for becoming

sound and responsible citizens for the development of their nation.

3) to serve as a preventive measure from all acts of immorality in higher

institutions of learning

4) to guide youth to learn to live in an immoral environment should they find

themselves in any society

5) to guide the individual to the perfection of family life.

6) to establish norms or standards of conduct or right and wrong actions

7) to enshrine in the youth the spirit of understanding and exercising their rights,

duties and values in the society

8) to learn their responsibility as citizens as well as government‘s moral

functions.

9) To guide youth towards attaining decent dressing and acceptable behaviour.

10) Morality emphasizes on right conduct in the world of work especially as it

relates to the way the society can develop and become viable.

Agents of Morality




In most societies, morality is the structures and mechanisms of social order and

cooperation governing the behaviour of individuals within a given human society.

Societies are identified with a social purpose and permanence, transcending

individual human lives and intentions, and with the making and enforcing of rules

governing cooperative human behaviour so that no one is made to suffer for

belonging to any social group. Subsequently, the following are agents of morality:

a) The first place where the child begins to relate with other human beings is the

family. It is the primary place where culture is taught and way of life is

demonstrated to the child. A morally sound family will ultimately breed a

morally sound child. In the family, there is the father, mother, brothers and

sisters who behave in accordance with the leadership demands in that family.

Sound family upbringing brings about well-behaved offspring which parents

are often considered responsible for the behaviour of their children.

The family serves as the first place where children are brought up based on

the way parents treat them. Parenting is about discipline and how best

children are guided towards becoming acceptable to the societal norms.

How well parents interact with their child affects the child‘s behaviour at home

as well as how the child will regard the parents when he/she becomes an

adult. A child needs to accept …a certain code of behaviour, parental

commands, traditional rules etc.‘ Of course, all children have their own

interpretations of moral concepts, and obeying these different rules in

different situations is the first clue that they were flexible and that they

depended on different factors. The child must come to feel himself what there

is in a rule which determines that he should abide by it willingly. In other

words he must sense the moral authority in the rule, which renders it worthy

of respect.

Authoritative parenting is characterized by high expectations of compliance

to parental rules and directions, an open dialogue about those rules and

behaviours, and a child-centred approach characterized by warm, positive

affect. The system is characterized by high expectations of conformity and

compliance to parental rules and directions. It involves the use of more




coercive techniques to gain compliance. Baumrind 1978). Permissive parenting

is characterized as having few behavioural expectations for the child and is

characterized by warm affect. Parents are nurturing and accepting, but non-

demanding.

Neglectful parenting is similar to permissive parenting but is a parent-

centered approach characterized by cold affect. It is less passive and more

controlling than permissive. These parents usually pay no attention to their

children's actions. Outcomes: Research into the child behavior outcomes

associated with each type of parenting has traditionally shown a strong

benefit to authoritative parenting. These children have been shown to have

more self-discipline, emotional self-control, more friends and better school

performance. However, recent research has identified a number of caveats.

First, authoritarian parenting may be more effective in certain contexts and in

social groups other than those studied in early research. Secondly, little

research has examined the genetic influences that may underlie the findings.

For instance, harsh parenting may produce harsher children through the

mechanism of genetic transmission of these traits. Behaviour genetics

research is currently examining the influence of genes as they pertain to

parenting styles and how children copy some genes in their body system to

become intelligent or idiots, to think critically or be just followers.

b) School serve as an agent of morality, a disciplined school trains students to

behave according to set down rules and regulations with minimal rebellion. It

serves as an agent of negative or positive morality. If the school instruct

negatively, the end result will be learners will learn to act in a negative way.

Most schools encourage positive morality so that their products will meet

every societal demand without reservations. Schools assist the process of

learning what an appropriate behaviour so that learners in the smaller group

within the larger society behave in an act acceptable to all. It is usually

associated with children and adults involved in academic activities meant to

train everyone admitted so that he/she can learn to behave acceptable and

train proficiently in the occupation that will best suit them.




Schools serve a social agent of morality in that learner is trained the daily

routine of observing and respecting time for all activities. It shows learners

how best they can succeed and become employable which in a way removes

any burden on the society.

In recent times, much attention has been devoted to the roles the school is

expected to play in the training of good citizens in Nigeria. The emphasis

placed on education is borne out of the fact, as stated by Federal Government

of Nigeria (2004), that education is considered a potent instrument for change

and development. Probably, that is why lyewarun (1989) asserts that

education is an instrument by which young members are brought up and

morally socialized so as to become useful and active members of the society.

However, the role of education differs from culture to culture. In support of

this view, Metzieobi, Domike and Osakwe (1996) notes that the emphasis

placed on the goals of education ranges from culture to culture and society to

society. To him, while some people see education as an instrument for

achieving a specific objective, others; see it as a means of training the mind

and intellect. Schools should serve as instruments for achieving a specific

objective such as moral training and socialization as well as means of social

mobility while others see education as a means of inculcating a particular

ideology aimed at making life better for those who receive it.

From a different perspective, Yusuf (2005) observes that the school should not

be used as an instrument for training in citizenship only, rather it should be

directed at the training of the mind and the development of the intellect.

c) Peer-groups: after the parents, when a child is taken to school, the first

people they learn to relate with are the peer groups who gradually influence

the child towards a set of behaviours depending on how they were brought

up. Research finds that children learn how to behave appropriately by

observing their peers. Children are motivated to be similar to their peers and




at the same time to be better than them. They compare themselves to their

peers to understand their strength and weaknesses.

It is as well appropriate to understand that peer group greatly influences the

behaviour of children, those who relate with serious ones, will compete

among themselves and those who associate with those with poor moral

disposition in families end up poor in their behaviour and actions. It is in this

wise, that it is appropriate for parents to determine who the friends of their

children are so that at the end of it all, their children will be morally sound.

d) Religious Institutions: Religious institutions play a vital role in teaching

followers the best moral behaviour by giving examples from the past to

ensure compliance to religious doctrines. Most religious institutions followers

on many aspects of morality including, behaviour, family life, fight against

corrupt behaviours and aim at overall development of the individual so that

the individual will behave in ways that encourage tolerance and love for one

another. The two major religious in Nigeria have been very relevant in guiding

faithful to the correct and right conduct so that no one is left ignorant of what

they should know to attain religious acceptance. In all the religions however,

rational people are guided on rational activities based on divine teachings.

They both preach working hard to live, they discourage laziness and all forms

of evil. The Islamic religious teaching guides followers on how to marry,

transact business, and conduct activities in the God‘s earth as well as how to

ensure a viable upbringing. The religion further teaches followers to seek for

knowledge and learn from the Quran, Hadith and teachings of learned

Mallams so that all will be knowledgeable in every area of human endeavour

without any glitch. The Ten Commandments of the bible teaches followers of

that religion the dos and don‘ts so that all will be morally sound.

Nowhere was it stated that people should be lazy or cheats, all religions

preach hard work and earning ones‘ sweat so as to attain God‘s acceptance

and blessings. As moral teaching, the believers were taught the best way of




worship and what should be done to ensure that the society is morally sound

to execute its function as a place for God‘s worship.

e) Media: this serve as an important, significant and moving force in the

twentieth century as a social force that can teach norms and values by way of

symbolic reward and punishment for different kinds of behaviour as

represented in the media. An alternative view is that it is a learning process

whereby we all learn how to behave in certain situations and the expectations

which go with a given role or status in society. Thus the media are continually

offering pictures of life and models of behaviour in advance of actual

experience.—McQuail 2005: 494)

The media serve as an avenue to reshape human behaviour either positively

or negatively. Media include, the TV, Satellite, Internet, Social Networks as

facebook, twitter, podcast, 2go etc. They great serve as an agent of morality if

used appropriately. However, with the information epoch, today‘s a medium

often serve as a disadvantage source of diverting youth attention to their

primary responsibilities giving room to failure in all spheres of students‘ life.

Most youth today could spend hours on 2go and Facebook chatting while

forgetting about their primary responsibility of hard work to attain success.

Gradually, such avenues are doing more harm than good to youth especially

in colleges and Universities. The more all raise to their responsibilities, the

better tomorrow

Citizenship right and duties

A citizen is the member of a community, whether that community is a town or a

great country: and as the member of a community he has both privileges and duties.

Citizenship is defined as a relationship between the individual and the state in

relation to mutual rights, duties and obligations. Citizenship is also a form of

participation in the running of the state and society, and in this sense an agency and

subject. As spelt out in the 1999 constitution, one is a citizen of Nigeria provided

such as person:

Was born in Nigeria before the date of independence either of whose parents

or any of grandparents belong or belonged to a community indigenous to

Nigeria. Provided a person shall not become a citizen of Nigeria by virtue of




this section if neither of his parents nor any of his grandparents was born in

Nigeria

Every person born in Nigeria after the date of independence either of whose

parents or any of grandparents is a citizen of Nigeria

Every person born outside Nigeria either of whose parents is a citizen of

Nigeria (Chapter 3, section 1)

There are also provisions for naturalization and for foreigners to apply for

Nigerian citizenship.

Nigeria takes time to grant citizenship to foreigners that meet certain requirements.

A main way for foreigners to obtain Nigerian citizenship is via 'naturalization', which

requires the following - an individual must be at least 17 years that resided in Nigeria

for at least 15 years, is of good character, plans to remain in Nigeria, is familiar with

Nigerian language and customs, has a viable means of support, and has renounced

previous citizenship. Another way is through 'registration' and this mostly applies to

women (not men) married to a Nigerian citizenship. Of course, individuals with at

least one Nigerian citizen for a parent can also become Nigerian citizens themselves.

The constitutional provision also spells out rights and privileges in a fairly

comprehensive manner as to ensure rights of all citizens. The problem is not

however, the constitution but the translation of its provisions to reality. Part of this

complication is the division of Nigerian citizens –in daily experiences—into indigenes

and settlers. As used in common parlance, an indigene is synonymous with native,

autochthon and ―son/daughter -of-the soil‖, and refers to ascribed identity of being

born in a particular location into a specific ethnic group considered to have a

―homeland‖ within the locality. To be an indigene of a place therefore means that

the ethnic group can point to a territory as ―native land‖ where such native land is in

a local council or state. The Federal Character Commission has defined indegeneity

in the local council and states. It accepts people whose parents and/or grandparents

were indigenes and/or people accepted as indigenes by the council. When one is an

indigene of a local council in a state s/he is automatically an indigene of that State

(Federal Character Commission ND: 16). This position is more trenchantly expressed

by Sam Egwu who asserts that ―Indegeneity‖ of a state is conferred on a person




whose parents or grandparents were members of a community indigenous to a

particular state‖ (Egwu 2003:37; 2009). Thus Nigerians, who have their ethnic

genealogy elsewhere, even if they were born in a particular state or lived all their

lives there, are regarded as ―settlers‖ (Alubo 2006; Ibrahim 2006). A settler is

regarded as a stranger, a sojourner who may have been born in a location but is

regarded as a bird of passage who would ultimately go ―home‖. Indigenes insist

sojourners have a home where they periodically visit for celebration and where

prominent members of the former are conveyed for burial. Herein lies an illustration

of the nature of identity as both self defined and other imposed. Most of the people

defined and treated as settlers do not regard themselves as such. In the Nigerian

experience, being an indigene or a settler is a permanent identity, as there is no

provision for the latter to convert to the former.

An identity is a distinguishing label that objectively exists, is subjectively felt, and

enables its bearers to experience individually and collectively a sense of solidarity . As a

label, it can be assumed by, or imposed on bearers. It is also a prism by which

objects, people, and collectivities are sorted, organized, mapped and ordered into

meaningful [and] understandable units. Identities are socially constructed, dynamic

and multifaceted. Subjectively, identification with a category is simultaneously a

definition of self, so that groups come to identify themselves as ethnic, religious,

occupational, national and other terms. Objectively, individuals do not identify in

general, but do so in relation to others’ definitions of themselves and the boundaries

implied in such definitions.

The Source of Rights and Obligations:

God, praise be to His name, is the source of all rights and obligations. According to

the Sharia, right and obligation are among the essential elements of the dignity of

man granted to him by God, the most high. The dignity of man is the yardstick of the

validity and uprightness of observing rights and duties in accordance with God‘s will.

But according to the Sharia, right and obligation are restricted to realizing the will

and the satisfaction of God. They are also restricted by the public interest, and by not

doing harm to the others. People have to identify and agree upon rights and duties

concerning new development in their lives, but, in a manner not at variance with the




will and laws of God, and in a way that insures the dignity and interest of man and

setting forth justice among men

Duties of a Citizen

The first obvious duty of a citizen is loyalty to the country of his birth or adoption.

Patriotism does not mean ―My country, right or wrong‖; but it does mean that in a

national crisis or danger, a citizen must be prepared to support and defend his

country even, if necessary, with his life. Secondly, it is the duty of a citizen to obey his

country‘s laws. He must have no sympathy with crime, which is a breach of law. He

may consider some laws imperfect, unwise and even unjust; and he may, and should,

use all constitutional means in his power, such as public speaking, writing to the

press, organization, and the use of his vote, to get such laws reformed or abolished.

But so long as a law is a law, he must obey it. Thirdly, he must do more than keep

the law himself, he must, as occasion arises, actively assist the guardians of the law in

the performance of their duty in putting down crimes and arresting criminals.

Criminals must be made to feel that they have, not only the police, but also all

respectable citizens against them. Fourthly, he ought to take an intelligent interest in

politics; for as a citizen he has a vote, and he is responsible for using that vote for

the good of his country as a whole. He must form definite opinions as to what is best

for his country, and what men are the best to rule it, and what new laws and reforms

it needs, and then actively use such influence as he has to forward such measures.

Lastly, a citizen must be ready, if he has the ability and is called upon to do so, to

render active voluntary service to his city or country, by serving on municipalities,

education committees, and other public bodies, or even in the central legislature.

Good citizens have no right to leave the management of local or national institutions

to professional politicians.

Citizenship education is vital in this respect as it trains the mind of people in the

direction of what is required for a stable and enduring democracy. Citizenship

education analyses man in all aspects of environments like social studies. It considers

social, economic, political, religious, cultural and technological aspects of life.




The teaching of citizenship education enables learners to think beyond their

individual and ethnic interests; thereby making them to tolerate and respect the

views of others. It is citizenship education that will enhance unity and stability and

human right. According to Yusuf(2005), citizenship education which has as important

components of value education could serve as an instrument for bringing about

desirable positive change in the Nigerian value orientation. It determines action and

shapes the direction in which an individual operates in a given situation. Obike

(1993) states that, the people's value orientation and their social attitude expressed

through services rendered to one another constitute the bedrock upon which

members of the society depend for their survival.

Government and Moral functions

The main duty of Government is to protect lives and properties of its citizens and it

must therefore ensure that fundamental human right is acknowledged, respected,

coordinated with other rights, defended and promoted, so that in this way each one

may more easily carry out his duties. For "to safeguard the inviolable rights of the

human person, and to facilitate the fulfillment of his duties, should be the chief duty

of every public authority."

Society as a whole, acting through public and private institutions, has the moral

responsibility to enhance human dignity and protect human rights. In addition to the

clear responsibility of private institutions, government has an essential responsibility

in this area. This does not mean that government has the primary or exclusive role,

but it does have a positive moral responsibility in safeguarding human rights and

ensuring that the minimum conditions of human dignity are met for all. In a

democracy, government is a means by which we can act together to protect what is

important to us and to promote our common values.

It is also demanded by the common good that civil authorities should make earnest

efforts to bring about a situation in which individual citizens can easily exercise their

rights and fulfill their duties as well. For experience has taught us that, unless these

authorities take suitable action with regard to economic, political and cultural

matters, inequalities between the citizens tend to become more and more




widespread, especially in the modern world, and as a result human rights are

rendered totally ineffective and the fulfillment of duties is compromised.

Just freedom of action must, of course, be left both to individual citizens and to

families, yet only on condition that the common good is preserved and wrong to any

individual is abolished. The function of the rulers of the State, moreover, is to watch

over the community and its parts; but in protecting private individuals in their rights,

chief consideration ought to be given to the weak and the poor.

The complex circumstances of our day make it necessary for public authority to

intervene more often in social, economic and cultural matters in order to bring about

favourable conditions which will give more effective help to citizens and groups in

their free pursuit of man's total well-being. The state has the duty to prevent people

from abusing their private property to the detriment of the common good. By its

nature private property has a social dimension which is based on the law of the

common destination of earthly goods. Whenever the social aspect is forgotten,

ownership can often become the object of greed and a source of serious disorder,

and its opponents easily find a pretext for calling the right itself into question.

The teachings of morality insist that government has a moral function: protecting

human rights and securing basic justice for all members of the commonwealth.

Society as a whole and in all its diversity is responsible for building up the common

good. But it is the government's role to guarantee the minimum conditions that

make this rich social activity possible, namely, human rights and justice. This

obligation also falls on individual citizens as they choose their representatives and

participate in shaping public opinion. It is clearly laid down that the paramount task

assigned to government officials is that of recognizing, respecting, reconciling,

protecting and promoting the rights and duties of citizens.

Governments must provide regulations and a system of taxation which encourage

firms to preserve the environment, employ disadvantaged workers, and create jobs

in depressed areas. Managers and stockholders should not be torn between their

responsibilities to their organizations and their responsibilities toward society as a

whole. Where, on the other hand, the good offices of the State are lacking or

deficient, incurable disorder ensues: in particular, the unscrupulous exploitation of




the weak by the strong. The economy cannot be run in an institutional, juridical, or

political vacuum: the state has its role to play, guaranteeing personal freedom, a

stable currency, and efficient public services.

Discipline and the Nigerian Youth

The Nigerian Youth are challenged to work towards earning their sweat by

respecting moral virtues as citizens of a sovereign nation. One of the fundamental

issues of being a man is to be disciplined so that one defines his role in the society

by pursuing a common goal of self development and achievement of success

through hardwork, no success come from laziness. Youth must learn, respect and

protect their country through hardwork, loyalty sincerity and dedication to their

duties. Nothing comes by chance, therefore youth must work towards learning to:

a) Obey all the set rules and regulations

b) Work for the development of their society through dedication

c) Cooperate with one another to achieve a common goal: Nigeria‘s progress,

development and peace

d) Enjoy success through appreciation of efficient and viable duties to the nation

e) Avoid all forms of activities that will not encourage the development of their

society

f) Keep to their focus and avoid all forms of indecency at home, school and work

place so that we have a society that aims to make life better for the coming

generation

g) Respect their elders and constituted authority

h) Be just, honest and transparent in the discharge of their responsibilities as

citizens of a free nation

i) Be hospitable, accommodating, tolerant of people‘s feelings and preferences

j) Love one another and imbibe the spirit of fulfilling promises when taken

k) Ensure that criminals and corrupt people are reported appropriately to the

constituted authority so as to remedy the society of all evils.

Measures taken to Unite Nigerians

The following measures were taken by the Federal Government to unite Nigerians

and ensure moral rectitude. The rationale was to ensure unity in diversity:




a) The introduction of the national pledge and national anthem…this is recited in

all Government functions especially at assembly congregation in schools and

colleges to imbibe the spirit of making Nigeria one nation through daily

commit to protect and uphold its glory.

b) The introduction of Federal Schools all over the country with a view to ensure

that youth from all nooks and crannies of the country are educated in any

school with a view to learning different cultures and moral teachings.

c) The introduction of the National Youth Service Corps in 1976 with the aim of

uniting Nigerian Youth to learn to tolerate and live with one another so that

the country will be a single entity with all having the zeal to support and

develop it.

d) The establishment of the National Orientation Agency which aims at meeting

people at the grassroots to enlighten them on their duties and duties of the

Government so that a common ground is held by all.

e) Mass mobilization programmes were introduced to enlighten citizens on the

importance of self-reliance and societal progress.

f) The introduction of teaching of moral philosophy in colleges and universities

with the aim of re-orienting youth towards understanding their

responsibilities and how best to resolve to contribute for the betterment of

the society that must be united, morally sound to progress.

g) The introduction of Betterlife for rural women to unite women towards

understanding their life worth and how best to rely on themselves for the

betterment of their society.

h) The introduction of unity schools in the country so that children from all parts

of the nation could receive education.




i) The observance of national sanitation day throughout the country to ensure

that at one day all the citizens are engaged at a spontaneous activity from

every part of the country.

Cultism, its causes, effect and remedies

Odubunmi (1998) sees gangsterism as Secret Cult in our campuses. Gangsterism is

seen as a group of criminals especially those who are armed and use guns or group

of students acting as terrorists within the school system. He further asserts that once

the group holds their meeting in secret, they are Secret Cults. The word Cultism may

be referred to as the formation of a group of initiates or adherent round the figure

of a god, a saint or even a living being. It may involve the practice of a particular

doctrine within the body of religious belief.

Ogunbameru and Daodu (2003) defined Secret Cult to be any form of organization

whose activities are not only exclusively kept away from the knowledge of others but

such activities are carried out at odd hours of the day and they often clash with

accepted norms and values of everyday life. Cultism started in Nigerian institutions

of higher learning with the founding in 1952 of the Pirate Confraternity at the

university college of Ibadan. The common ideology which the founding fathers held

in allegiance to was the promotion of the dignity of the black man, which was then

seriously threatened by the discriminatory and oppressive practices of the Colonial

government and expatriates. Lasisi and Edun (1999) asserted that Pirate

Confraternity commanded the respect and admiration of many people. Some years

after the graduation of the founding fathers, internal wrangling and power tussle

began to rent the organization as other similar organizations were formed such as

Buccaneers, Eiye confraternity in 1968, Black Axe 1970 and others.

Aje (2001) identifies the factors that caused secret cult which include economic

handicap of some students in school, ticket to abuse education that is, abuse of

quota system, examination malpractices and others, students‘ politics, social




recognition, unfettered heartlessness and group protection. As from 1990s, the

activities of Secret Cult has taken a horrorful and worrisome dimension which many

criminal activities including murder arson, armed robbery and rape are frequently

linked to their members, and lack of discipline. To that extent therefore, many of the

purported Cultists are actually Gangsters or members of crime syndicates hiding

under the umbrella of certain Secret Cults or societies. Holloway (1989) examined

the proposition that human aggression can only be explained in terms of the

capacity of human species to develop complex social communities on the basis of

abstract idea. According to such view, he explained that violence springs from logic

of the human condition. It represents typical and pathological response to

frustration which are nevertheless endemic in human society and human mind.

Conflict, he said begets frustration and in certain circumstances frustration begets

violence. As a result of this, the study on Cultism and Gansterism as the causes of

current eruption, aggressive behaviors and violence in Nigerian tertiary institutions

as they affect the learners‘ moral development is worth pursuing. It is therefore

hoped that the result of this study will provide solution if not total as to the activities

of the cultists and gangsters on campus. And in a short while sensitize the public and

Nigerian schools to the evil of secret cult activities while the public would see the

need to eradicate them within its rank and file in and outside Nigerian school

system.

Remedial suggestions

Despite the fact that cultism and gangsterism have posted some threat to the

survival of education in Nigeria in the past and present, the future of Nigerian

education can still be redirected to profitable activities, it would help in no small

measure in assuaging the dangerous situation. It is recommended that the

photograph and bio-data of the rusticated students should be communicated to the

press and other colleges and universities. Matriculation oath should be designated

and contain a portion that would state the penalty for members discovered to be a

member of campus cult. Parents should be made to sign a deed of undertaking

affirming their commitment to discourage their wards from all forms of cultism

before admitting their wards to school. The school security department should be




equipped with modern and sophisticated security gadgets, such as patrol vehicle,

walkie-talkie, metal detector est. Universities and colleges should establish a well

equipped guidance and counselling unit that would be headed by professional and

competent counsellor.

Life of Prophet Muhammad (SAW)

The character of the Messenger of Allah is the Quran. His conduct is expressed in the

following verse:

a) Take to pardon, enjoin good and turn away from the illiterate.

b) Allah says: Allah enjoins justice, kindness, giving charity to the relatives and

prohibits indecencies, evils and rebellion -16:90.

c) Have patience at the disasters that befall on you. It is a difficult task. It is

difficult to have patience and to forgive.

d) Allah says: Pardon and forgive them. Allah loves the doers of good. Allah says:

Don't you like that Allah should forgive you?

e) Allah says: Remove evil with what is good, as a result the enmity that exists

between you and him will be removed and he will become your friend.

f) Allah says: Those who appease their wrath, those who pardon people, Allah

loves the doers of good.

g) Allah says: Give up conjectures in most cases, as some conjecture is sin. Don't

spy and don't back-bite one another.

The seal of Prophethood conducted his life in a transparent manner emphasizing on

helping the poor and the needy and working very efficiently and effectively to make

life better for every human being. During his life time he preaches piety, adherence

to God‘s command and being very morally sound. In one of his teachings, he

brought the chick of a bird to the gathering of the Prophet and his companions, and

they noticed that the parent of the chick was following it, flapping around it .When

he sat down its parent threw itself upon its chick, and did not concern itself with the

danger, out of care towards its chick. This astonished the companions. The Prophet

Muhammad then turned to his companions and said: ‗Are you amazed at this bird?

You have taken its chick and it threw itself into danger out of mercy for the chick! I

swear by God, your Lord is more merciful to you than this bird is to its chick.




The prophet emphasized on being merciful to colleagues, brothers, and even

animals, he taught the people to respect their elders and warn against any form of

rebellion to parents and elders, he in essence made it mandatory that we should

teach our children to worship the Creator thereby dressing decently, behaving in an

acceptable manner to the people. He warns against all forms of cheating the people

and led his companions by example, to the extent, he empowered them to be united

and speak in one voice.

The prophet lead a life that was full of emulative things to the extent that even his

enemies enjoyed favour from him everyday praying that God the almighty guide

them to understand his teachings so that they could achieve greatness in the

hereafter. The prophet warns against cheating and any form of behaviour that gives

undue advantage to others so that people where taught morality and moral conduct

at home, in the mosque, in the market, at work place and other places.

There is a lot to learn from Prophet Muhammad‘s humility and readiness to assist

the poor and those in need whom he was reported to have said are those whom

God loves and in many prophetic sayings, he was reported to have requested people

to love the poor and the needy whereby, he emphasized that charity should be given

to those in need and enjoin faithfulls to be giving rather than collecting where he

said the hand that gives is better than one that receives.

In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful.

"It was by the mercy of Allah that you were gentle with them (O, Mohammad) for if

you had been harsh and hard of heart they would of dispersed from around you. So

pardon them and pray forgiveness for them and consult with them in the affair"

(Quran 3:159). This verse from the Holy Quran indicates that Prophet Mohammad's

(P) attitude was a factor in attracting people to Islam. Any leader who wants to

summon people to God should also be gentle and lenient in his personal attitude.

The importance of this verse is that one should be lenient as an individual, but not in

principles.




The Holy Prophet (P) was very firm when it came to principles and showed no

flexibility or softness. If someone insulted him, he would forgive them kindly,

because that was something related to himself. But if anyone violated Islamic laws

and rulings, the Holy Prophet would treat them with severity and justice. Once

someone stopped the Holy Prophet (P) and claimed that the prophet owed him

some money and that he would not let him go unless he received the amount

immediately. The Holy Prophet said: "I don't owe anything, but even if I do, let me

go home to get you your money". The man said that he would not let the Prophet

take another step. Ignoring how gently the Prophet (P) had behaved, the man acted

fiercely and rudely, to the point that he took the Holy Prophets gown off and

wrapped it around his neck and pulled it, until it became bruised.

The Holy Prophet (P) had been on his way to the Mosque and when people noticed

that he was late, they went in search of him and found a Jew obstructing in the way.

At that point the Muslims wanted to slap and punish this rude fellow, but the Holy

Prophet (P) said: "No, you people do not interfere; I know what to do with my

friend". Observing this humble attitude and leniency, the Jew embraced Islam right

there and said: "You are so powerful yet you are so lenient, and this is not possible

for an ordinary man. I bear witness there is no God except Allah and that you

Mohammad are the messenger of Allah."

When the Holy Prophet (P) entered Mecca after the city had been conquered, a

woman from amongst the wealthy Quraish aristocrats had stolen something

important and and according to Islamic rules, her hand had to be cut off. The

women was a popular influential figure of Quraish, and her relatives tried to save her

by persuading the Prophet not to go ahead with the ruling because the women was

the daughter of such a wealthy and upperclass family and if her hand was to be cut

off the whole family would be disgraced.

The Prophet said: "Impossible, I cannot suspend the ruling. If this women was not a

member of the aristocracy (rich & famous) you would all agree that she must be

punished, but now you say she should not be punished because she would be




disgraced. How can I forgive her? Never. The laws of Allah will never be suspended

and no excuses will be accepted".

From the two incidents we see that the Holy Prophet (P) never compromised in

matters regarding principles, but when his own interests were in question, he was

extremely lenient and generous. Some of the reasons behind the progress of Islam

were because of his excellent conduct, attitude and characteristics displayed by the

Prophet (P) and the way he lived. His great role as a Prophet, Messenger, guide,

leader and all the great characteristics of different personalities combined into one

man excelled him over all other men in history, and also because of the Holy Quran,

which was a miracle given to the Holy Prophet (P) from Allah. The unique beauty,

depth, elegance and attraction of the Holy Quran left a great impact in the spread of

Islam.

This is why Allah mentions in the Holy Quran in regards to the greatness of the Holy

Prophet.

(Quran 68:4) "And surely you are of an exalted character". Thus a man who talks or

preaches from his heart, will win the hearts of others, and whoever talks and

preaches from his mouth, his words will not penetrate hearts. In the messages

delivered by men of God, this point is clearly observed but not in the messages of

other leaders of the world. The Holy Prophet Mohammad (P) transformed the world

from its ignorance and idol worship to that of monotheism and salvation. He carried

out the most remarkable tasks under unbelievable hardships but always maintained

his kindness, generosity and forgiveness, which truly characterises the messenger of

God. In him the highest perfections were assembled. He was in reality that perfect

infallible man before whom the angels were ordered to prostrate. That is why Allah

and his angels praise and bless him and those who are faithful are commanded to

also praise and bless him and are required to learn, follow and benefit from the life

and teachings of the Prophet Mohammad.

DRESSING AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE




Decency entails suitable in words, behaviour, dress, becoming; fit; decorous; proper;

seemly; as, decent conduct; decent language. Decent dressing is an important

component of that first impression. People make assumptions about professional

credibility and potential performance based upon appearance during a first meeting,

and it is difficult to overcome a first impression.

Trust is a fragile and complex thing. It‘s made up of our thoughts, beliefs, values,

feelings and most important – our actions. It is often indefinable, highly personal and

mostly an unconscious process that governs the why and how of what we do.

Although trust, at all levels, appears to be at an all time low – we still desire it and

mostly understand that we need it to achieve success in our professional and

personal lives. First impressions are of significance when it comes to relationship

between people. What people wear helps create a powerful first impression for new

associates. Powerful dressing could achieve this sought after first impression with

ease.

Thorndike therein defined the halo effect as "a problem that arises in data collection

when there is carry-over from one judgment to another." He further expanded that it

is "...an extension of an overall impression of a person (or one particular outstanding

trait) to influence the total judgment of that person. The effect is to evaluate an

individual high on many traits because of a belief that the individual is high on one

trait. Similar to this is the 'devil effect,' whereby a person evaluates another as low on

many traits because of a belief that the individual is low on one trait which is

assumed to be critical." So, to clarify, if possible, when an individual is found to

possess one desirable trait, then that individual is automatically assumed to have

many other desirable traits as well. A kind of an "angelic halo" surrounds the person,

in the eyes of the beholder, and they can do no wrong. If a person is bestowed with

good physical beauty, then this person is also presumed to possess a host of other

positive attributes as well, such as social competence, intellectual competence, and

personal adjustment.




The inverse phenomenon called the "Devil Effect," and sometimes the "Horn Effect",

does not seem to get as much attention, even though its impact is just as prevalent

in society. Here, if a person seems particularly deficient in a critical trait, then that

person is automatically assumed to be deficient in many other traits as well, related

or otherwise. For example, an employee who is constantly "late" to work (perhaps

due to other non-work responsibilities in the morning) is assumed to be negligent in

their work-related duties, not committed to the job/company/project, and perhaps

even lazy overall.

Ultimately, these faulty biases may prove to become factual due to the Pygmalion

effect, or "self-fulfilling prophecy ", further reinforcing future errors in perception

due to bias and predisposition by the observer. The person working long hours

(perhaps compensating for technical incompetence), assumed to be a good worker

is given greater opportunity and thus attains greater, albeit undue, career

advancement. Conversely, the worker who dresses shabbily is assumed to care little

about their job, and therefore bypassed for greater opportunity when the situation

arises, regardless of suitability or capacity otherwise. Essentially, is phenomenon is a

psycho-social application of the Law of Proximity, whereby certain unrelated

observations, found in the comparable subjects in a narrow sample set, are assumed

to have a high correlation, when, in fact, no such correlation exists.

Morally, it is charming and pleasant to dress decently whenever you are coming in

contact with people. It is against every sense of belonging to dress in an indecent

manner that could not only discourage people to relate with you but will have a

negative effect on the way they will trust you. In higher institutions, most students

are influenced by their peers to dress in an immoral manner so that they appeal to

the opposite sex. It is pertinent to state that the more a girl hides her body the more

attractive she is and the more she is considered decent and vice versa. The end of

every human endeavour is morality; therefore it is vital that girls try to protect

themselves from societal hazards of rape, sorting and societal exploitation through

decent dressing which has lasting impact on the life of the people.




References

Aje, S.A (2001). Problems of Cultism in Nigerian Schools. Ilorin Afri-focus Publishing

Company Limited. Pp 1-35.

Baumrind, D. (1978). Parental disciplinary patterns and social competence in children.Youth and Society , 9, 238-276.

Daodu, M.A (2003). Student cultism in Nigerian Secondary Schools. Nigerian

Education reviews, 8 (1) Pp. 186-194.

Edun, T. (1999) Cultism or gangsterism? Reflection on contemporary violence in

Nigerian Institution of Higher learning. Paper presented at Olabisi Onabanjo

University, Ago-Iwoye. Pp. 1-12

Holloway, (1989). Individual aggression and social conflict. The individual and society.

Great Britain. The Open University. Pp. 47-82.

Odubunmi, .O. (1998). Occultism in schools: An overview. A paper presented at a

seminar on towards total eradication of Occultism and Examination

Malpractices in schools. Pp.1-11.

200 Level Gsp Moral Philosophy Notes

Documents