10 Botanical Report Robina Rafiq 1992 1995

REPORT ON THE BOTANICAL STUDIES IN PALAS VALLEY (1992-1995)

THE FLORA OF PALAS VALLEY AND PLANT CONSERVATION PRIORITIES

BY RUBINA A RAFIQ

NATIONAL HERBARIUM NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH CENTER

ISLAMABAD

REPORT PREPARED FOR HIMALAYAN JUNGLE PROJECT, PALAS VALLEY, KOHISTAN.

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ABSTRACT

Flora, vegetation and phytogeographical affinities of Palas valley have been studied for the first time. An attempt is made to highlight the floristic peculiarities for biodiversity conservation of Palas valley. The valley is characterised by a marked change in the climate, soil and vegetation from east to west. The study provides a checklist of plants of Palas valley. Seven species endemic to Pakistan are found in Palas. Three new species, Jasminum leptophyllum R.A.Rafiq, Delphinium palasianum R.A.Rafiq and Pseudomertensia flavescens R.A.Rafiq were discovered during the present investigation. Rare species endemic to Pakistan collected during the present survey include Rhamnella gilgitica, Pseudomertensia sericophylla which were known from the type locality only. Some other rare species found in Palas are mentioned.

The chorological spectrum of species show a high percentage of species with a distribution range restricted to adjoining areas. A significant proportion of species is confined to the Northern mountains of Pakistan, Kashmir and east Afghanistan. A considerable number of Central Asian and Sino-Himalayan species are also found in the valley. About one third of the flora has wider distribution with palaeotropical elements represented in lower elevations. Holarctic and boreo-temperate elements are represented in the montane and sub-alpine and alpine zones. Some selected examples are discussed with their status in Palas valley.

Three main vegetation zones determined by climate and topography are recognized in the valley. In each vegetation zone, micro-scale habitats pattern is influenced by soil, moisture, exposure to solar radiation, inclination of the slope and snow accumulation. According to a great diversity of micro-habitats, plant communities are highly diversified in each vegetation zone. Diversity of small scale habitat offers an oppurtunity to a variety of discrete plant communities which host some unique species of plants peculiar to Palas valley. The unique features of each plant community are descibed in detail and natural and human threats are mentioned.

Recommendations are made for conservation of plant diversity of Palas valley.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank Guy Duke, Project Coordinator, BirdLife/WWF Himalayan Jungle Project (HJP), Islamabad (Pakistan), for proposing and encouraging my botanical work in Palas which led to PhD study in Vienna University. I am grateful to Dr Mumtaz Malik, Conservator (Wildlife) NWFP, for his encouagement, support and help during my field work. I am grateful to Dr Zafar Altaf, (ex-)Chairman Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Pakistan, for supporting PARC-HJP collaboration. I am deeply indebted to professors Dr. H Riedle and Dr. G. Grabherr for their guidance and supervision during my studies at Vienna. I am grateful to Dr. G. Grabherr who visited Palas valley in 1995 during my field work for his help and valuable discussions in the field. I am grateful also to my field colleagues and assistants Naeem Ashraf Raja, Abdul Ghafoor and Noor Naeen of HJP, and Sikander Hayat of NARC; and to the people of Palas for their hospitality. My thanks to Razwal Kohistani for collecting information on socioeconomic uses of plants of Palas. I thank the Directors of the Herbaria, Natural History Museum, Vienna, and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for providing facilities to study the specimens and type material. I also wish to thank Mr. Bernhard Dickory for his help during identifications of grasses and sedges and his valuable suggestions. This study was made possible by generous financial assistance from the Austrian goverment and HJP. HJP (1991-1994) was implemented by BirdLife International in partnership with the NWFP Forest, Fisheries and Wildlife Department, World-Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), National Council for Conservation of Wildlife and World Pheasant Association; HJP was financed predominantly by the British Overseas Development Administration (ODA), WWF, US Fish and Wildlife Service, and Biodiversity Support Program (a USAID-funded joint venture of WWF-US, the Nature Conservancy and World Resources Institute).

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CONTENS INTRODUCTION 5

AIMS AND OBJECTIVE 8

BACKGROUND 8

TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, CLIMATE 10

METHODOLOGY 13

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 15

FLORAL DIVERSITY 15

PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES 19

VEGETATION 41

COLLINE/SUBMONTANE ZONE 42

QUERCUS BALLLOOT FOREST 45

MONTANE ZONE 46

CEDRUS DEODARA FOREST 47

ABIES PINDROW-PICEA SMITHEANA FOREST 48

BROAD-LEAVED DECIDUOUS FOREST 50

SUB-ALPINE AND ALPINE ZONE 53

MIXED SHRUB COMMUNITY 53

BETULA UTILIS FOREST 54

DWARF JUNIPER-RHODODENDRON SCRUB COMMUNITY 54

SUB-ALPINE PASTURE SIBBALDIA CUNEATA COMMUNITY 54

KOBRESIA COMMUNITY 56

RUMEX NEPALENSIS COMMUNITY 57

SNOWBED FORB COMMUNITY 58

KOBRESIA COMMUNITY WITH MABY FORBS 59

ROCK SCREE VEGETATION 61

GRAZED AVALANCHE MEADOW 62

AVALANCHE MEADOW 64

AVALANCHE SHRUB COMMUNITY 66

TALL FORBS SPECIES RICH COMMUNITY 68

RUMEX SAMBUCUS COMMUNITY 69

NATURAL AND HUMAN IMPACTS ON VEGETATION 71

RECOMMENDATIONS 76

REFERENCES 78

ANNEX 86

CHECKLIST OF PLANTS OF PALAS VALLEY 86

PLANTS OF SOCIO ECONOMIC VALUE 140

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1. INTRODUCTION

Considerable progress has been made during the past two

decades on taxonomic studies for Flora of Pakistan in

collaboration with National Herbarium, PARC and

Herbarium Botany Department, Karachi University, but

floristic information is far from complete. New

information is becoming available as more areas are

opening up to researchers due to improved transportation

facilities especially in the mountainous areas of the

country. Several areas in these mountain ranges are not

well known to science because of difficult terrain, lack

of transportation facilities and socio-cultural and

political reasons.

Northern Pakistan is among some of the most fascinating

regions where three great mountain ranges: Himalaya,

Karakoram and Hindukush meet with several peeks rising

more than 7000 m above sea level. The great variety of

habitats found in steep high mountains and deeply

incised valleys with diversified topography have

resulted in special ecological niches that store large

number of endemic species of plants and animals. The

flora in these mountains has characteristics and

diversity not found in other parts of world. Due to

close proximity the flora has stronger influence of

flora of Central Asian mountains.

In Pakistan, according to an estimate natural forests

cover less than 5% (4.29 million hectares) of the total

land area. A large proportion of our natural forests are

mainly coniferous forests (1.78 m ha about 41.4% of

total forest area) which are confined to northern

mountain ranges. During the past few decades extensive

5

deforestation has been done and vast areas in the

mountains have been cleared for commercial timber

extraction and expanding human settlements especially in

Kashmir, Kaghan and Swat valley. According to some

recent study in Kaghan valley potential forest area has

decreased by about 50% (Schickoff 1995). In Siran valley

the forest cover has decreased by 45% between 1979 and

1988 (GTZ report 1990), the information is based upon

remote sensing data (Landsat MSS and TM). In 1992 these

areas suffered most due to heavy rains resulting in

devastating flood that damaged property and human life

on a large scale.

The physical environment is changing as a result of

increased concentration of greenhouse gases causing

global warming and depletion of ozone layer bringing

climate changes on global scale. The global climate is

expected to warm between 1o and 5o C during the next 100

years. Biotic responses to global climate change are

difficult to predict and rate of change is accelerated

by anthropogenic influences. These large scale changes

in our environment are effecting our ecosystems in

different ways and to various extents (Solomon & Shugart

1993). High mountain ecosystems are particularly

vulnerable in a changing environment (Markham et

al.1993). Global warming leads to a reduction in alpine

biodiversity as a result of upward migration of lowland

species, especially in mountains rich in endemic species

(Grabherr et al. 1995).

Natural habitats are shrinking due to man induced

changes in the form of clearing of forest areas for

agriculture, forest plantations of exotic species,

expanding human settlements due to population growth,

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construction of roads and large dams, etc. Large scale

development projects fragment large ecosystems of rich

biodiversity into smaller units. In such a fragmented

system rate of extinction or loss of species is faster

than in a larger habitat because ecological niches

available for survival are proportionally reduced. We do

not know exactly at this stage how different plant

species will respond to climatic and ecological changes

and to what degree the local flora will become

impoverished and intermingle with introduced weedy

species following human activities.

In response to environmental and anthropogenic pressures

on biological resources there is a growing need for the

conservation of natural ecosystems. In this context it

is necessary to preserve biodiversity at all

organizational levels. Preservation of pristine

ecosystems with habitats, communities and species that

have unique characteristics of scientific interest and

importance is necessary for long term ecological well-

being.

Palas valley remained isolated for a long time due

to its difficult terrain and tribal culture. It

lies in the transition zone between regions of

monsoon and Mediterranean climate. Representative

vegetation types and floristic elements from Sino-

Japanese and Mediterranean region found in the

valley provide an opportunity to study the

interaction of different floras. Palas valley

offers a great variety of niches due to its

topographic and climatic diversity and hosts a

number of unique species of animal and plant. It is

generally believed that organisms in borderline

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regions are more vulnerable to ecological changes

and they either migrate or evolve new ranges of

tolerance. Palas valley can also serve as reference

area for measuring and documenting long term

ecological changes. In the present study an attempt

is made to provide information on the diversity of

species, communities and habitats of scientific

interest to select Palas valley as a representative

site for biodiversity conservation.

1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVE

To prepare preliminary checklist of the plants of Palas valley

To evaluate the floral diversity and Botanical importance of Palas Valley, and to highlight species and communities of particular interest.

To analyse the phytogeographic affinities of the Palas Flora

To identify and describe the variety of the plant communities in Palas

To assess the human impact on plants and plant communities in Palas, identify threats to them, and prepare recommmendations for their conservation.

To prepare a preliminary checklist of plants of Socioeconomic value in Palas, as a basisfor further ethnobotanical work for sustainable use of plants.

2. BACKGROUND

Palas valley district Kohistan, Northwest Frontier

Province (see Fig. 1 & 2) is one of the inner valleys of

Northwestern Himalaya that has been isolated from the

rest of the world due to socio-cultural reasons. Palas

valley has a distinct position among neighboring valleys

for its variety of habitats and forest communities of

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near primary condition distributed over an altitudinal

range of 800 m to over 5151 m.

Apart from floral diversity Palas contains a variety of

wild birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, insects. Over

140 bird species have been recorded so far including

seven of the eight 'restricted range' West Himalayan

species and the largest known population of the globally

threatened western tragopan-Tragopan melanocephalus (Guy

Duke 1995). Many rare and threatened species of mammals

are noted including Kashmir gray langur Presbytis

entellus, black bear Selenarctos thibetanus, leopard cat

Felis benghalensis, musk dear Moschus chrysogaster and

markhor Capra falconeri and many others. Rich diversity

of biological resources makes it suitable for future

scientific research to monitor response of individual

species, communities and ecosystem as a whole to global

climatic change and other ecological disturbances

induced by human activities.

Palas has a population of about 40,000 and their economy

depends mainly on forest resources. It is one of the

least developed areas of Pakistan with no industry in

the area and literacy rate of 1.4%. Employment

opportunities do not exist in the area and people go to

big cities for labour in construction work or other

minor jobs.

Agricultural activities are not self sustaining, only

4.8% of the land is under cultivation, mean farm size is

about 1-2 ha. Maize is the main crop cultivated, some

vegetables are also grown on a small scale. Crop yields

are low due to poor seed, inadequate irrigation and

fertilizer, poor cropping practices and uncontrolled

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pests and diseases. Additional food is brought in the

valley from other areas to meet the shortages.

Traditional life style of people of Palas involves

seasonal transhumance, in which most of the population

move seasonally with their livestock between winter

villages and summer pastures. Generally people spend

most of their time sitting around and enjoying each

others company. There is no social pressure towards any

accomplishment or industriousness. Maize bread is the

staple food in the area supplemented by vegetables grown

around maize fields or wild herbs collected from

forests. Sometimes locally produced honey and milk

products are also consumed additionally when available.

Severe inter-family disputes are common and disrupt

agriculture and livestock herding. In some cases people

migrate to other areas abandoning their farms and

houses. In 1995 dispute over Chaur pastures with the

neighboring valley forced people to go to Khabkot

pastures where severe overgrazing was observed due to

over crowding during data collection for vegetation

study.

Palas valley escaped the attention of botanists for a

long time due to its difficult terrain and tribal

culture, although the adjacent valleys of Kaghan and

Swat were visited by several collectors since the last

century. During the preparation of an inventory of the

plants of the valley for The Himalayan Jungle Project

(1992-1994), some interesting discoveries were made

which led to the present study. An attempt is made to

identify species, communities and habitats of special

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interest in Palas as representative site for

conservation of biodiversity in Pakistan.

2.1 TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, CLIMATE

Palas valley (34o 48/-35o 12/ N & 73o 35/-75o 52/ E) lies

East of the River Indus in District Kohistan, Hazara

Division, NWFP (see Fig. 2). Palas is bounded to the

North by Jalkot valley (District Kohistan), to the East

by Kaghan valley (District Mansehra) and to the South by

Allai valley (District Mansehra).

Palas is reached by crossing river Indus from Karakorum

Highway at Pattan, and taking the unmetalled Pattan-

Ziarat road (under construction) c.12 km to the roadhead

near Karat, at the mouth of Musha’Ga. Beyond the

roadhead, access is only by foot. An alternate route is

to take the unmetalled road to Badakot and cross the

Sherakot pass. In July-September, mountain passes are

open to Kaghan and Allai.

Palas valley lies among the front ranges of the

westernmost extension of the Himalayas -- the Kohistan

Arc. Altitudes range from 750 m to 5151 m. The

topography is steep to precipitous, with a number of

narrow gorges. The main river--the Musha’Ga, is about 75

km long and joins the River Indus at 73o05'E, 35o08'N.

Palas (including the independent catchments of Sherakot

and Kolai) covers a map area of 1413 sq. Km.

The main Palas river or Musha’Ga starts in the high

mountain chain bordering Kaghan valley and flows in the

East West direction meeting River Indus near Pattan.

Several small streams coming from various side valleys

meet Musha’Ga at different points. Main Palas valley is

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narrow and deep for most of the part, however, it

broadens somewhat near Wulbela and bifurcates into two

gorges. Chaur Nala and Neela Nala come from these gorges

and meet to form Musha’Ga (or Chauru river)--the main

river of Palas valley.

A series of secondary spurs run in North-South direction

ranging in elevation from 2000 m (Shukiser) to 4200 m

(Kunari Pass). At higher elevations heavy snow

accumulates during winter and melts slowly during summer

and trickle into small streamlets which join eventually

and meet main Musha’Ga river at different points down

the valley. These streams cut narrow deep gorges and

ravines flanked by tall high ridges. A vast area of more

or less undulating alpine meadows is found at the crest

of these ridges ranging from 3200-4000 m from Muro to

Gutab. There is an interesting tendency for many of

these ridges to raise their crests in to narrow peaks

rising to up 4000 m or more, especially Kunari top and

Tikoh top along Khabkot valley, where alpine area is

represented by steep slopes only. Most of these spurs

make an abrupt descent to the bottom of the valley along

Musha’Ga and character of vegetation changes suddenly.

Average elevation of these ridges varies from 1800 to

3200 m asl. The highest peak is ‘Bahadar ser’ c.5151 m

situated in the North between Palas and Jalkot valley

Climatic figures are not available, Khan (1989) gives an

estimated mean annual precipitation of 900 mm to 1350

mm. According to personal experience in the field and

reports from local people Palas valley has warm to hot

summers, and cold winters. Area along main Palas river

in lower Palas valley experience hot summer and mild

winter. High altitude (above 3000 m) areas receive heavy

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snow fall during winter (October to March) and remain

under snow from October to June. Snow fall starts at

higher altitudes as early as late September. Alpine

areas have a very short snow free period for plant

growth during summer from late June to early September.

From March to June there is generally a rain free dry

period. The summer rains start in July, but the valley

is somewhat sheltered from the monsoon rains by

mountains to the South and the amount of rains is

decreased in Palas.

Information on geology of the area is not available.

Generally rocks are granitic, quartz and shale,

silicious bedrock material is predominant.

3. METHODOLOGY

The floristic exploration of Palas valley was started in

September 1992. In 1993-1995 more surveys were conducted

during early summer and late summer season starting from

early June to mid September. The survey was made by

trekking through different valleys and ridges up to

approachable height of 4300 m to cover all vegetation

zones in the area including colline, montane, sub-alpine

and alpine zone.

I feel it necessary to mention the extraordinary

difficult conditions for field work in the area. There

are no roads in the valley and survey can be made only

by walking through difficult paths on steep slopes used

by local people and their livestock. Logistic facilities

do not exist and food stuff for field team and porters

has to be taken in to the valley for the period planned

for field work. All these factors together make it

13

almost practically impossible to spend more than two

weeks at a time for survey.

FLORAL INVENTORY AND PHYTOGEOGRAPHY

For the preparation of checklist of flora, suitable

plant specimens were collected and pressed for

herbarium. Field data was recorded about locality,

habitat, altitude, habit of plant, flower color, etc.

Specimens were later dried and mounted according to

standard herbarium procedures at National Herbarium,

Islamabad. The specimens were identified subsequently

and deposited in the National Herbarium (RAW), NARC,

Islamabad. The inventory of plant species was prepared

on the basis of plants collected in the area and the

distribution range of each species was taken from the

existing literature. Flora of Pakistan (1970- ) and

other regional floras were used for identification and

distribution information. Further information was

collected at KEW herbarium and Herbarium, Natural

History Museum, Vienna.

ECOLOGY AND PHYTOSOCIOLOGY

For phytosociological study Braun-Blanquet method was

applied as described in Mueller-Dombois & Ellenberg

(1974). Representative releves were selected in all

already recognized plant communities in different

vegetation zones in the area. The releve of suitable

size was selected in a homogenous vegetation area. A

total of 84 releves were studied.

Each releve recorded include an inventory of species in

each plot and estimate of the percentage cover for each

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species according to the Braun-Blanquet scale. The

altitude of the plot was recorded with a Thomen

altimeter. Exposure and gradient were recorded with a

Suunto clinometer. The size of releve varied from 9 to

400 m2 depending on the type of community studied and

availability of homogenous plots.

All the samples were taken in late June to early August.

Late June and early July period was most suitable for

forest communities between an altitude of 1000-2800 m

when grazing was minimum but most of the herbaceous

flora was in its early stages of development. However,

above 2800 m there was still too much snow and there

were no plants at that time. Most of the alpine and sub-

alpine communities were recorded from late July to early

August when grazing was moderate. In late August and

September the vegetation in montane and alpine zone was

strongly affected by grazing and it was impossible to

select any sample plot with some homogenous natural

vegetation and identifiable plants.

Classification of releves was carried out using the

computer program ‘TWINSPAN’ developed at Cornell

University by Hill (1979) with some modifications by Dr.

Karl Reiter, Department of Vegetation Ecology and

Conservation Biology, University of Vienna.

The original two way table output is given in Table 1.

This study provides a first reconnaissance of the

communities of Palas valley. No attempt is made to

arrange it in a syntaxonomical hierarchy and to describe

syntaxa according to the recommendations of the code of

phytosociological nomenclature (Barkman, Moravec &

Rauschert 1986). To do syntaxonomical work much more

15

must be known about the floristic composition of plant

communities of Northwestern Himalaya.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 FLORAL DIVERSITY

The present inventory is based on plants collected from

the area during visits of the valley from 1992-1995

mainly in monsoon season, no collections were made in

spring season. About 600 species have been recorded for

the area so far, including 19 species of pteridophytes.

The families, genera and species are arranged in

alphabetical order. The species name is followed by its

general distribution and range of altitude.

Gymnosperms are represented by 4 families and 11

species. Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Abies

pindrow, Picea smithiana form the dominant forest tree

species and cover large area in the montane zone

throughout the valley. Juniperus semiglobosa replaces

Cedrus deodara and forms open forest communities with

Pinus wallichiana on dry rocky scree slopes in upper

Palas valley. Juniperus communis and J. squamata are

common throughout the valley above 2700 m in sub-alpine

and alpine scrub vegetation. Ephedra gerardiana is also

common in steppic kind of vegetation in upper Palas

valley. Ephedra ciliata is frequently found as a

scattered species in the colline zone. Tall trees of

Taxus wallichiana are generally found as a scattered

tree in mixed conifer forest but in some localities

branched shrubby form is growing gregariously in broad-

leaved forests along Khabkot river.

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Angiosperm taxa are represented by 96 families. The

families represented by the highest number of genera and

species are given below:

FAMILIES NO OF GENERA NO. OF SPECIES

1. Poaceae 40 62

1. Compositae 36 53

1. Labiateae 17 29

1. Rosaceae 14 28

1. Ranunculaceae 11 26

1. Umbelliferae 17 23

1. Papilionaceae 13 21

1. Polygonaceae 8 17

1. Caryophyllaceae 10 16

1. Cyperaceae 4 16

1. Scrophulariaceae 9 15

1. Boraginaceae 8 14

1. Brassicaceae 12 13

1. Caprifoliacea 3 13

1. Gentianaceae 5 10

The remaining families are represented by less than ten

species, 40 families are represented by one genus and

one species.

Seven species endemic to North Pakistan were collected

from Palas including three new species. Jasminum

leptophyllum, Pseudomertensia flavescens and Delphinium

palasianum, were collected during a botanical survey

from Palas -- the only locality known so far. Rhamnella

gilgitica, a rare species known only from the type

collection. It is rediscovered in Palas after it was

collected from Gilgit in 1937 by Troll. The type was

destroyed in Berlin herbarium during second world war.

Pseudomertensia sericophylla is also known from the type

specimen which was collected from Nathia gali area in

1907 by Harold Dean.

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Pseudomertensia, an endemic genus to Western Himalaya

and East Afghanistan, is represented by four species in

Palas. P. trolli is confined to Pakistan and Kashmir and

P. moltkioides is also found in Afghanistan

Some other rare species confined to North Pakistan are

Fraxinus raibocarpa and Rhododendron collettianum which

are known from Hindukush range as far West as Chitral

and Dir. This is the first record for these species East

of Indus river extending the range to NW Himalaya.

Several other rare species confined to North Pakistan

and Kashmir are found in Palas. Some selected examples

are given.

Meconopsis aculeata is a rare species, known only from

Kaghan valley and adjacent Kashmir in Pakistan. It was

collected from Palas at 2400 m on a shady snow swept

rock scree along Khabkot river.

Delphinium tenuipes, a rare species known from Hindukush

area, grows as single plant in dry montane areas with

some damp soil in upper Palas valley.

Aquilegia nivalis, an alpine species with attractive

deep blue flowers is restricted to special habitats in

shady and moist rocky areas above 3000 m, infrequent in

the valley.

Saussurea costus, a medicinal plant collected on

commercial scale, is included in appendix III of CITES

(Convention on International Trade of Endangered

Species).

Inula royleana, a rare species found in sub-alpine fir

forest is seen only in a few localities in Palas.

18

Saxifraga stenophylla, a high altitude species seen

above 3800 m in wet rocky areas in Palas.

Ulmus wallichiana, an endangered species listed in IUCN

Red data book, is found in broad-leaved forest in

Khabkot valley. A small population, appears to be

reproducing well with several trees of different ages,

grow along Khabkot river at the base of slopes on valley

floor from 1800-2700 m.

Ulmus villosa, a rare West Himalayan elm is seen only in

one locality around Paro village in Palas.

Cypripedium cordigerum, a rare orchid grows in the

montane forest zone as a scattered plant, is often

picked up by people walking through the area for its

fascinating flowers. Only few plants can develop mature

seeds which are hidden in the herbage.

Herminium piogioniforme, another rare small orchid grows

in alpine meadows in Palas, no herbarium specimens were

seen from Pakistan although it is expected in the area.

The flora is characterized by a high percentage of

species with a restricted range of distribution in the

adjoining areas. Most of the species are found over a

wide range of altitude. More than half of the species

are distributed in montane and alpine habitats. About

120 species are found only in alpine and sub-alpine

areas above 2700 m. The high percentage of cosmopolitan

species, mostly weedy elements, are mainly represented

in the colline zone.

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4.2 PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES

The geographical location of Palas valley in the inner

Himalayan range in relation to Kashmir Himalaya,

Karakoram, and Hindukush make it interesting for

phytogeographic studies of its flora. It occupies a

transitional zone between moist monsoon climate and dry

Mediterranean type climate with winter precipitation. In

this area interaction of the floras of Central Asia, the

Mediterranean (Irano-Turanian) and Sino-Japanese region

can be studied. The present work will contribute

information towards a better understanding of the

phytogeographic affinities of the West Himalayan region

as a whole. A detailed analysis of the distribution

pattern of all taxa in other area is needed to draw a

definite conclusion about relationship of the flora.

Phytogeography of Himalayan mountains has been studied

by a number of botanists such as Clarke, Hooker, Troll,

Meusel, Schweinfurth, Hara, Kihara, Landon, Gupta, Mani

and others and valuable information is available mainly

on Central and Eastern Himalaya and Kashmir-NW India

Himalaya. However, floristic and biogeographic

information about areas West of Kashmir is still

fragmentary. A broader approach is adapted in this study

to give a general view of the flora and its relationship

to adjacent regions.

Hooker (1906) recognized West Himalaya as a distinct

botanical province within Himalaya extending from Kumaon

(Uttar Pradesh, India) in the East through Kashmir to

Chitral in the West. There is much confusion and general

disagreement on the precise boundaries of the major

subdivisions of phytogeographic regions proposed by

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various authors and affinities of the flora with

adjacent areas.

According to Kitamura (1960) the Sino-Japanese region

extends through Western Himalaya into East Afghanistan.

Kitamura’s view was followed by Hara (1966), Zohary

(1973), Ali & Qaiser (1986). Meusel (1971) concluded

that Mediterranean elements are strongly represented in

the West Himalayan flora. Mountains West of Indus river

are included in the Irano-Turanian region (Ali & Qaiser

1986). Wendelbo (1971) recognised stronger influence of

Central Asian elements in East Afghanistan and adjoining

mountains of Pakistan. Hedge (1986) suggested a review

of currently used phytogeographic terminology as our

knowledge of the flora has increased over the past

decades and the concepts developed in phytogeographic

region need to be redefined.

Analysis of the distribution range of all the species

showed that a large proportion of the flora has range

restrictions of various degrees. About 2/3 of the

species show restricted distribution in Himalaya and

adjoining mountain ranges. About 1/3 of the species have

wider distribution in the Northern hemisphere with some

cosmopolitan elements. On the basis of different levels

of endemism following major categories can be

recognized:

1. widely distributed species

2. species endemic to the Palas valley and Pakistan

3. species endemic to N Pakistan, Kashmir & NW

India

4. species endemic within Himalaya

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5. species endemic to Himalaya and Hindukush (E

Afghanistan)

6. species endemic to Himalaya, Hindukush and

Central Asia

7. species endemic to East Afghanistan Himalaya,

Tibet, SW China, NE India, Burma

The largest group comprising more than 200 taxa is

represented by species which are widely distributed.

These taxa are mainly distributed in the temperate

regions of Northern hemisphere from Europe, Siberia,

North Africa, N. America , SE Asia to Japan. Many

species are cosmopolitan and weedy elements which are

spread by human activities and grazing animals. Some

common weeds include Cynoglossum lanceolatum, Amaranthus

spp., Stellaria media. Several species common in colline

and sub-montane areas in Palas valley have palaeotropic

distribution pattern. A large number of widespread

grasses are included in this group, like Poa annua,

Dichanthium annulatum, Setaria pumila, Apluda mutica,

Brachypodium sylvaticum, Dactylis glomerata, Digitaria

spp., Heteropogon contortus, etc.

Eurasian species include elements like Prunella

vulgaris, Solidago virga-aurea, Lotus corniculatus. Some

species like Aster flaccidus common to Siberia and SW

China reach NW Himalaya through Central Asia. Phleum

alpinum common in alpine areas in Palas is a trans-

Palearctic or Euro-Siberian species also found in

mountains of South Chile. Some species common in alpine

areas in Palas have a circumboreal distribution like

Oxyria digyna, Trisetum spicatum, Sagina saginoides,

22

Circaea alpina, Geranium sibiricum, Epilobium

angustifolium, etc.

Some Sino-Japanese elements represented in Palas valley

are: Euonymus hamiltonianus, Spiranthes sinensis,

Dioscorea deltoidea, Geranium nepalensis, Artemisia

japonica, A. roxburghiana. Mimulus nepalensis commonly

grows in marshy areas along water channels in lower

Palas, and was not known from Pakistan before.

Wickstroemia canescens, a Himalayan species, ranges from

South China through Himalaya to East Afghanistan, also

reported from Sri Lanka. It is common in the under

growth in dry montane forests in Palas.

The Irano-Turanian elements are represented by Celtis

caucasica, Daphne mucronata etc

Pistacia khinjuk, an Irano-Turanian species, main range

extends from Southeast Anatolia, North Syria, Iran,

Northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan (from Makran to

Northern areas) also penetrating South Jordan, through

Sinai to Northwest Saudi Arabia.

Some examples of plants reaching N Africa and South

Europe include Bunium persicum, Chenopodium foliosum,

Ficus palmata, Debregeasea salicifolia etc. Fraxinus

xanthoxyloides has a disjunct distribution. In its

western range it extends from Northwest Africa, Morroco

to Algeria and then in the East it is found in East

Afghanistan, Pakistan through Kashmir to Kumaon in

Northwest India. It is an important component of the

Quercus balloot-Olea ferruginea community in the colline

zone.

23

Plants endemic in Himalaya and neighboring mountain

ranges to the East and West make up about 2/3rd of the

flora of Palas. For most of the species (about 40%)

either Northwest Himalaya or Hindukush in East

Afghanistan form the western border. Only a small

proportion (about 9%) of species reach Central Asian

mountains in the Northwest and almost the same

percentage extend up to Burma and China in the East.

These results show that Himalaya as such forms an easily

distinguishable unit, that may be subdivided into

smaller units and Northwest Himalaya is certainly a

distinct sub-unit of Himalaya with Palas valley a part

it. The number of endemic species for each area is given

below

Areas Endemic taxa

Palas 2 North Pakistan 5 N Pakistan & Kashmir 26 Pakistan, Kashmir, NW India 43 E Afghanistan, Pakistan to NW India 40 E Afghanistan, Pakistan to Nepal 33 E Afghanistan, Pakistan to Bhutan 32 SW China to Pakistan 30 SW China to E Afghanistan 25 Central Asia to NW India 26 Pakistan to Bhutan 74

Species endemic to Pakistan and Palas include seven taxa

all confined to the Northern mountains of Pakistan.

Three species are endemic to Palas valley found only in

one or two localities in a relatively small area.

Jasminum leptophyllum is found in the colline and sub

montane zone. Pseudomertensia flavescens, another

endemic to the Palas valley, grows in the upper montane

and sub-alpine zone. Rhamnella gilgitica, Delphinium

palasianum and Mattiastrum howardii are confined to

24

25

Palas and Gilgit. Rhamnella is a monotypic genus endemic

to Pakistan. Rhamnella gilgitica is common in the sub-

montane sclerophyllous zone, and Delphinium palasianum

is found in open scree slopes in the montane region.

Mattiastrum howardii grows on sub-alpine scree slopes in

upper Palas valley. Ranunculus stewartii is endemic to

Palas and Baltistan found in sub-alpine and alpine

areas. Pseudomertensia sericophlla is endemic to

Pakistan (Palas, Nathia gali, Parachinar).

Species confined to North Pakistan, Kashmir and

Northwest India include 69 species. 26 species are

confined to N Pakistan and Kashmir and 43 species extend

to Northwest India and two species extend to Tibet.

Ulmus villosa endemic to Pakistan, Kashmir and NW India,

is a rare elm, not common in Palas, a small population

grows in the colline zone around Paro area along

Musha’Ga.

Ziziphus oxyphylla, endemic to Pakistan, Kashmir and NW

India, is infrequent in the colline zone in lower Palas

valley.

Impatiens edgeworthii, I. flemingii, I. thomsonii are

common throughout Palas valley from the colline and

montane to the sub-alpine zone.

Berberis brandisiana endemic to N Pakistan and Kashmir

is frequent in the montane zone.

Hackelia macrophylla and Epimedium elatum are

distributed in moist montane forests of N Pakistan and

Kashmir.

26

Delphinium denudatum and D. cashmerianum infrequent in

coniferous forests in upper Palas are endemic to

Pakistan and Kashmir.

Androsace foliosa is a common species in the montane

forest zone in Palas and is endemic to Pakistan and

Kashmir.

Smilax vaginata is a rare species in Palas confined to

Pakistan, Kashmir and NW india.

Alchemilla trollii, common in alpine & sub-alpine

meadows in Palas is restricted to Pakistan to Kashmir.

Saussurea atkinsonii, a common species in alpine meadows

in Palas is endemic to Pakistan and Kashmir.

Rhododendron anthopogon var hypenanthum together with

Salix flabellaris are the common species in alpine

communities in Palas, and are restricted to Pakistan

Kashmir and NW India, the latter species is also found

in East Afghanistan.

Bupleurum thomsonii and Vicatia wolffiana frequent in

alpine and sub-alpine meadows in Palas, are confined to

Pakistan, Kashmir and Ladakh.

Cortia depressa, a true alpine species infrequent in

Palas, is confined to Pakistan and Kashmir.

Trachydium roylei common in Kobresia-Carex meadows in

Palas is confined to Pakistan, Kashmir and NW India.

Dubyaea oligocephala is found in the sub-alpine area in

Palas and is endemic to Pakistan and Kashmir.

27

Codonopsis ovata is found in moist shady rock crevices

in the alpine zone in Palas, it is endemic to Pakistan

and Kashmir.

Hierochloe laxa endemic to Pakistan and Kashmir is found

in the alpine zone in Palas, not common. Duthiea

bromoides also found in the alpine zone is rare in

Palas, restricted to Pakistan, Kashmir and NW India.

There are about 73 species which have different range

restrictions within Himalaya.

Arnebia benthamii, an infrequent species in the sub-

alpine and alpine areas of Palas is confined to N

Pakistan India up to C. Nepal.

Aconitum laeve is a gregarious species in montane

coniferous forests but not very common in Palas. It is

found from Pakistan to W Nepal.

Allium humilis extend from Pakistan eastward up to W

Nepal. It is common throughout the Palas valley in

alpine areas.

Arcyospermum primulifolium, a monotypic genus endemic to

Himalaya, is distributed throughout Himalaya from

Pakistan to Bhutan, found in rocky moist and shady

habitats in alpine areas in Palas.

Staphylea emodi, a Himalayan species, ranges from Nepal

through Kashmir to North Pakistan up to Safed Koh in

East Afghanistan. It is a common shrub in the understory

in broad-leaved forest in moist shady ravines.

28

Rhamnus purpurea a common shrub in the montane zone in

forests and shrub communities in Palas, is restricted to

the area from Central Nepal to Pakistan.

Rheum webbianum a rare species in Palas, is confined to

sub-alpine rocky slopes, distributed from Pakistan East

to West Nepal

Lindelofia longiflora, a common gregariously species

grows in montane and alpine areas in Palas. It is

distributed from Pakistan to Nepal.

Lactuca lassertiana is common throughout the alpine and

sub-alpine meadows in Palas distributed all over

Himalaya and Tibet.

Trollius acaulis, uncommon in sub-alpine and alpine open

places in Palas, is found from Pakistan to W. Nepal.

Viburnum grandiflorum is found throughout Himalaya from

Pakistan to Bhutan and also in Tibet. It is not as

common in Palas as in outer Himalaya.

Jurinea dolomiaea, found above 3500 m in the Kobresia

community on Kunari slopes in Palas, is endemic to

Himalaya found from Pakistan to Nepal

Plants which extend their distribution in the East to

Southwest China, Burma and Tibet include 55 species.

Prunus cornuta, a common tree in Montane forests and

also on disturbed slopes occupied by shrubs is

distributed from East Afghanistan throughout Himalaya

and SW China.

29

Populus ciliata, a Himalayan species also found in

Southwest China. It is a common tree in broad-leaved

forests in Palas.

Hackelia uncinata is found throughout Himalaya and also

in West China. It is one of the commonest herbs in the

broad-leaved forests and open slopes in Palas.

Lonicera webbiana is a Himalayan species; it ranges from

East Afghanistan to Burma and China (Tibet & Szechwan).

It is common in the moist montane forests in the

undergrowth in Palas valley.

Isodon rugosus, common throughout the valley found from

the colline to the sub-alpine zone in Palas is more

common on dry slopes. It is distributed throughout

Himalaya and East Afghanistan also found in SW China.

Indigofera heterantha is one of the commonest shrubs in

forests and shrubberies, found throughout the valley

from the colline to the sub-alpine zone. It is

distributed throughout Himalaya and extends to East

Afghanistan also found in China.

Dioscorea deltoidea, a frequent climber in montane

forests in Lower Palas valley, is distributed from

Afghanistan through Himalaya to Indo-China and China.

Fragaria nubicola common throughout the montane forest

zone, extends through eastern Himalaya to West China.

Geum elatum common in alpine and sub-alpine meadows

extends from Pakistan to Central Himalaya, also SE

Tibet.

30

Rosa macrophylla, common in forest understory and in

open shrub communities throughout Palas, is distributed

from Afghanistan through Himalaya to China.

Ribes alpestre and Ribes himalensis found throughout

Himalaya and also in China, are infrequent in subalpine

and alpine areas throughout the Palas valley.

Gaultheria trichophylla is a mat forming alpine species

infrequent in Palas and is distributed from Pakistan

through Himalaya to SW China.

Species extending to Hindukush (East Afghanistan) make a

large proportion of taxa (105 species). It includes most

of its woody taxa which make dominant components of

major forest communities, including Pinus wallichiana,

Cedrus deodara, Abies spectabilis.

Olea ferruginea and Quercus balloot are the dominant

species of the sclerophyllous community widely

distributed in the colline zone all along Musha’Ga. Both

species are distributed from Afghanistan to West Nepal

in the East but they are more common in the Western part

of their range.

Ulmus wallichiana is the red data book species found

from West Nepal to East Afghanistan, it is not common in

the West of its range. It does not form pure forest but

it is found as a scattered tree in broad-leaved forests

accompanied by other broad leaf species.

Aesculus indica is a West Himalayan species common in

the moist broad-leaved forests as a scattered tree that

reaches East Afghanistan and Hindukush. Acer caesium

31

extends from Central Nepal to East Afghanistan in the

West.

Pistacia chinensis ssp integrrima is found from West

Nepal to East Afghanistan but it is more common in

eastern Part of its range, infrequent in Palas.

Sorbus lanata is frequently seen in upper montane forest

and sub-alpine shrub communities, it ranges between

Nepal and East Afghanistan. Syringa emodi, common in

under story in montane forests in Palas, is distributed

from Central Nepal to East Afghanistan.

Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana ranges from Northwest India

in the East to East Afghanistan in the West. It is

gregarious and forms dense understory in some forest

communities and sometimes forms almost pure dense

shrubberies on disturbed slopes, more common in lower

Palas valley in the montane zone.

Jaeschkea oligosperma is distributed from Kashmir to

East Afghanistan and is common in alpine meadows and

open shrub communities.

Viburnum cotinifolium is a Himalayan species, it ranges

from Bhutan to East Afghanistan in the West, common in

forests and open moist slopes throughout Palas valley.

Abelia triflora is a Himalayan species found from East

Afghanistan to Central Himalaya but not common in East

Afghanistan; it is rare in Palas valley seen only around

Bar ser area. Paeonia emodi is infrequent in Palas

valley. Its distribution ranges from West Nepal to East

Afghanistan.

32

Rhododendron collettianum is a rare species found only

in a small area in East Afghanistan (Nuristan and

Paktia) and Chitral in Pakistan. It is seen only in a

small area in lower Palas valley in sub-alpine scrub

with Salix, Juniper spp on a moving scree slope along

Muro river at 2700 m.

Angelica glauca frequently found in the montane and sub-

alpine areas in Palas is distributed from Afghanistan,

Pakistan to NW India.

Berberis aitchisonii, endemic to Pakistan and

Afghanistan, grows in the montane and sub-alpine zone in

Palas. Delphinium tenuipes found only in East

Afghanistan and Chitral in Pakistan, is a rare species

in Palas valley.

Paeonia emodi is found from East Afghanistan to West

Nepal. Not common in Palas, grows gregariously on shady

slopes or in open forests in the upper montane zone.

Jaeschkea oligosperma, common on open slopes and

subalpine meadows in Palas, is restricted to East

Afghanistan, Pakistan and Kashmir.

Asyneuma thomsonii is endemic to East Afghanistan

Pakistan and Kashmir. It is frequent in upper montane

forests and sub-alpine scrub communities on shady

aspects in Palas.

Aquilegia fragrans, an infrequent species in upper Palas

valley on dry rocky scree slopes is confined to the area

from East Afghanistan to NW India.

33

Themeda anathera and Pennisetum lanatum are common

grasses in Palas valley, distributed from Northwest

India to Afghanistan, the latter is also found in Tibet.

Plants which extend their distribution to Central Asian

mountains through Hindukush in the West comprise about

49 taxa. Central Asia is used here in the sense of

former Soviet Russian Botanists who call the mountainous

part of Central Asia “centralnyaya Aziya” and lowland

Aralo-Caspian area - the “srednyaya Aziya” (Middle

Asia).

Several species coming from Central Asia have the

eastern limit in NW Himalaya.

Cicer macranthum, common in upper Palas valley on rocky

and stony slopes above 2700 m, is distributed from Pamir

Alai, East Afghanistan to Pakistan.

Codonopsis clematidea, found in the upper montane zone

and sub-alpine meadows in Palas, is found from Central

Asia, East Afghanistan to NW India.

Chorispora sabulosa, a Central Asian species extends to

NW India. Also common in moist rock crevices in alpine

zone in Palas valley.

Lindelofia anchusoides, extends its distribution from

Central Asia through Afghanistan to NW India, it is

common throughout the valley from the colline to the

sub-alpine zone in monsoon season.

Acer cappadocicum, a frequent tree in the broad-leaved

montane forests in Palas is distributed from Central

Asia, East Afghanistan through Himalaya up to Assam.

34

Acer pentapomicum common along Palas river in the

colline zone, is found from Central Asia, East

Afghanistan up to NW India.

Fraxinus raibocarpa, a rare species in Pakistan, was

known from Hindukush area, its presence in Palas valley

is an extension of range to NW Himalaya.

Sorbaria tomentosa is a Central Asiatic species and

extends up to Nepal in the East through East Afghanistan

and North Pakistan. It is a common shrub in Palas valley

in moist places in forests and on open slopes. Ribes

villosum is a high mountain species and ranges from

Pamir Alai mountain to East Afghanistan, Pakistan to

Kashmir. It is common in sub alpine scrub vegetation.

Rosa webbiana ranges from Central Asian mountains,

Southwest and West China, North Afghanistan through

Pakistan and Kashmir up to Nepal. It is a common species

in Palas valley in montane forests, open slopes and in

mixed shrub communities in the sub-alpine zone.

Sibbaldia cuneata, common throughout the alpine and

subalpine zone is a dominant element in several alpine

communities and is distributed from Central Asia, SW

China, Afghanistan through Pakistan to eastern Himalaya.

Lonicera asperifolia is a Himalayan species frequent in

Pakistan, Kashmir and NW India, it reaches Pamir in the

West where it is rare. It is found in alpine scrub

vegetation on dry rocky and stony slopes in Palas.

Kobresia capillifolia is an important species in the

alpine meadows and often a dominant species in the

Kobresia-Carex communities in Palas. The Central Asian

35

species extends through Hindukush to West Himalaya in

the East.

4.3 VEGETATION

A preliminary survey of the plant communities of the

Palas valley is presented in this study. The study is

not complete yet and it deals only with general pattern

of community distribution in the area. The description

of plant communities is mainly based on the data

collected from Khabkot and surrounding areas including

Sherakot, Sharyal, Muro, Magri, Shushe bek, Gutab,

Kunari pass, Tikohsar. A great diversity of habitats and

communities is represented in the valley which are

relatively undisturbed as compared to the adjacent

valleys.

Three main vegetation zones can be identified in the

valley. Communities in each zone are described below.

4.4 COLLINE / SUB-MONTANE ZONE 1000-2000 m

Most of the areas along main Palas river (Musha’Ga)

comes under colline/submontane zone ranging from 850-

2000 m. This zone is characterized by dry slopes and

does not show any strong influence of monsoon rains in

the summer months. Lower parts of the valley from 1000-

2000 m are widely covered by evergreen sclerophyllous

vegetation mainly dominated by Quercus balloot and Olea

ferruginea. The trees appear stunted in growth, heavily

lopped and reduced to scrub and form an open kind of

vegetation. Some large patches of tall oak and olive

trees forming almost closed canopy forest can be seen in

certain areas especially Karuser, Pochmoru. Some oak

36

trees infested with a parasitic plant Korthalsella

opuntia are not uncommon throughout the area.

The vegetation is not very dense at any given point

rather on several areas it is more open and scattered

but it exhibits rich species diversity which may be

attributed to a wide variety of niches provided by

topographic diversity. A few scattered shrubby trees of

Acacia modesta and Dalbergia sissoo are growing near

Indus river. Several species of deciduous trees are

found throughout the valley forming indistinct

communities along with oak and olive.

In interior parts of the valley and on lower slopes

Quercus balloot forms more or less pure stands which can

be seen near Shukiser, Bar Ser and Bangah areas. Olea

ferruginea is gradually replaced by Fraxinus

xanthoxyloides on drier slopes with some scattered trees

of Pistacia khinjuk. A typical community is described in

detail at the end of the section.

Acer pentapomicum is common throughout the valley up to

Pichbela area along Palas river and its tributaries.

Other notable deciduous trees are Ziziphus jujuba, Ficus

palmata ssp virgata, Ulmus villosa, Celtis caucasica,

Acer pentapomicum, species of Salix and Populus are

common.

The undergrowth varies from place to place depending on

the topography, soil and moisture availability. Some of

the common shrubs found throughout the area are

Cotoneaster spp., Rhamnella gilgitica, Punica granatum,

Maytenus royleanus, Caragana brevispina, Ziziphus

oxyphylla,etc. Rhamnella gilgitica, a tall shrub with

edible black fruits, previously known only from the type

37

locality in Gilgit, is fairly common in the lower zone

from 1000-2500 m. The newly described species Jasminum

leptophyllum a much branched shrubby plant with simple,

narrow alternate leaves and strongly fragrant bright

yellow flowers is growing in a narrow gorge along Sarteh

Nala between Bar Ser and Bangah. A small population

grows in association with other low growing shrubs like

Cotoneaster spp, Isodon rugosus, Fraxinus

xanthoxyloides, Abelia trifolia etc., in thin, open

forest of oak.

Common climbers include Vitis jaquemontii, V.

parvifolia, Hedera nepalensis, Jasminum officinale.

Vitis jaquemontii is common throughout the area, an

extensive vine covering rocks and climbing trees, and

has edible fruits relished by travelers.

A variety of perennial and annual herbaceous plants form

a thin ground layer in the colline and montane zone.

Rumex hastatus a low growing bushy perennial with

striking fruits is common especially on steep moving

slopes. Mimulus nepalensis a small herbaceous plant with

bright yellow flowers, recorded for the first time from

Pakistan, is common in marshy and shady areas along

water channels and small streams from 900-2000 m. Other

frequent species include Nepeta spp., Dianthus spp.,

Delphinium swatense, Bupleurum subuniflorum, Fallopia

convolvulus, Rosularia adenotricha, etc.

Bunium persicum, locally known as 'hayon', is an

economically important species common in the lower zone.

The young seeds, used as flavoring spice/condiment, are

collected from the wild plants and sold in the market. A

38

number of other species are used locally for medicinal

purposes.

Some open grassy patches are common throughout the area

dominated by many species more common among these are

Apluda mutica and Themeda anathera, Setaria spp.

Phacelurus speciosus, Digitaria spp., Pennisetum spp.,

Tripogon purpurascens. Phragmites karka and

Calamagrostis pseudophragmites genellay grow in moist

localities. Tall bunches of Aristida cyanantha are

common on steep dry slopes. Extensive areas on dry

slopes in the interior of the valley are covered by

Cymbopogon jawarancusa. Grasses play an important role

in this colline zone for grazing animals during winter

when higher pastures are covered by snow. Several

species are important for fodder such as Bothriochloa

spp., Apluda mutica, Themeda anathera,. Eulaliopsis

binata is extensively used for floor covering in the

villages. Most of the grasses have a widespread world

wide tropical and colline distribution.

Near the settlements and villages some trees with edible

fruits like Diospyros lotus, Morus nigra and Crataegus

songarica, are occasionally growing along cultivated

fields and near houses. Weedy and ruderal plants are

common in and around cultivated areas, e.g. Cannabis

sativa, Urtica dioica, Conyza canadensis, Amaranthus

spp., Bidens bidentata, Hibiscus trionum, Commelina

benghalensis.

At higher elevations deodar and blue pine trees are

growing among the Quercus balloot forest above 2000 m

above Shukiser and Sherakot Quercus floribunda appear

39

with some Quercus balloot and Cedrus deodara but it is

not a dominant species in the area.

4.4.1 QUERCUS BALLOOT FOREST

About 26 species were recorded in this community.

Quercus balloot is the dominant species with a cover of

about 30-50 % of the area. Few scattered trees of

Fraxinus xanthoxyloides and Acer pentapomicum are found

in the community. Undergrowth is relatively thin and

consists of few species of shrubs and a loose herbaceous

layer covering less than 10 % of the area.

The community is found on a moderate to steep slope

below Shukiser village. The soil is dry, stony and

compact. Grazing is common and stunted trees show signs

of intense lopping. It also provides fuelwood to the

nearby village.

4.5 MONTANE ZONE 2000-3000 m

The montane zone includes some of the best preserved

virgin forests in the Northwest Himalaya. Three main

types of forests can be identified in this zone (see

table 1).

1. Cedrus deodara forests on dry slopes distributed between 2000-2800 m

2. Abies-Picea forests on moist slopes found

between 2500-3200 m

3. Deciduous broad-leaved forests mainly found on

valley floor from 2200-2800 m

40

The distribution pattern of these dominant communities

mainly depends on the aspect of the slope and altitude.

In some areas all species can be seen forming mixed

patches. Some shrubs and herbaceous species are common

throughout the montane zone in all types of forest

communities like Viburnum grandiflorum, Rosa

macrophylla, Podophyllum hexandrum, Dryopteris ramosum,

Hackelia macrophylla, Stellaria monosperma, Trillidium

govanianum etc.

Continuity of the forests along steep slopes is

frequently interrupted by vertical strips created by

moving snow avalanche. These strips are generally

occupied by various species of shrubs or herbs depending

on the degree of disturbance caused by moving snow and

accumulated soil. The composition and structure of these

communities changes vertically with increasing

elevation. In some places dense growth of shrubs with

occasional broad-leaved deciduous trees occupy these

strips where enough deep soil and moisture is available.

Species of Salix and Lonicera with some small trees of

Sorbus lanata, Prunus cornuta and Acer caesium with some

Betula utilis generally occupy upper shady and moist

slopes. At lower elevations Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana

form dense shrubby growth with some other species like,

Sorbaria tomentosa, Indigofera heterantha Acer

cappadocicum, etc.

4.5.1 CEDRUS DEODARA FOREST

Cedrus deodara forest adjoining the Quercus balloot

forest generally occupies fairly dry southern and

western slopes and sometimes forms pure stands in areas

41

like Sherakot and the ridge above Shukiser. Mature trees

are more than 40 m tall. On exposed sunny slopes due to

insufficient moisture in the soil shrubs do not form an

important component of the vegetation. Some perennial

herbs and annuals like Artemisia, Lespedeza, Pimpinella,

Viola, Brachypodium sylvaticum, etc., form a loose

herbaceous ground layer.

Cool shady eastern and Northern slopes with some

moisture in soil favor the growth of Pinus wallichiana

with relatively dense undergrowth. In some localities

Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana form a dense understory with

a reduced herbaceous layer in areas like Shiryal and

ridge above Shukiser. A small population of Fraxinus

raibocarpa is growing from 1800-2500 m in the Cedrus-

Pinus zone on a steep slope below Bosh in Khabkot

valley.

In some localities Quercus floribunda is found as

associated species above 2000 m. At lower altitudes from

1800-2200 m Quercus balloot and Q. floribunda grow side

by side together with a few trees of Pinus wallichiana.

Generally shrubs and herbs form thin growth in the

Cedrus forest but on shady areas relatively dense

patches of shrubs like Cotoneaster spp, Indigofera

heterantha, Abelia triflora, Lonicera quinquelocularis,

Jasminum humilis, Euonymus hamiltonianus are growing

with few herbaceous species on the ground. Common

herbaceous species include Lespedeza juncea,

Leptorhabdos parviflora, Clinopodium umbrosum, Fragaria

nubicola, Viola canescens, Brachypodium sylvaticum,

Dactylis glomerata, Piptatherum gracilis etc.

42

4.5.2 ABIES PINDROW-PICEA SMITHIANA FOREST

These communities were studied in Khabkot valley, Shushe

bek ridge, and forests around Muro pasture area. These

forests are generally found on moist upper slopes facing

North or East or along ridge crests from 2500-3000 m.

The main species include Abies pindrow and Picea

smithiana, occasionally in some areas Pinus wallichiana

and Cedrus deodara are also growing in these forests.

Some tall isolated trees of Taxus wallichiana reaching

considerable height (c. 40 m) are occasionally found in

these forests. It is difficult to distinguish between

Abies pindrow and A. spectabilis in middle altitudes but

trees growing at higher elevation (3000 m and above) are

distinct in habit and shape from ones at lower

elevations.

These forest communities are some of the most impressive

remaining forests of the Northwest Himalaya. Tall trees

reaching a height of 40-60 m forming more or less close

canopy forest are frequent especially in areas like

Magri ridge and ridges along Muro river and Khabkot

river from 2500-3100 m.

The undergrowth is species rich as well as dense to

moderate depending on the humus accumulation and slope

inclination. Several species of shrubs form the

understory, e.g., Viburnum spp., Rosa macrophylla,

Indigofera heterantha, Rubus irritans, Lonicera spp.

A rich variety of herbaceous species appear just after

the snow melt which include Primula macrophylla, P.

rosea, Trollius acaullis, Anemone spp, Podophyllum

hexandrum, Paeonia emodi, and some fern species. The

43

early spring flora is later followed by monsoon summer

flora forming more dense herbaceous layer with species

like Pseudomertensia spp, Viola spp. , Impatiens spp.,

Sambucus wightiana, Lindelofia longiflora, Silene

vulgaris, Senecio chrysanthemoides Aconitum

heterophyllum, A. laeve, Polemonium coeruleum, etc.

Narrow strips between forest areas are common which are

created by sliding snow avalanche which prevent growth

of tall trees. These areas have rich growth of

herbaceous plants and low growing shrubs. Common species

in these areas are Lonicera spp., Salix spp., Viburnum

spp., Rosa macrophylla Euonymus fimbriatus and Betula

utilis. Dense shrubbries are not uncommon at higher

elevations (above 2800 m) where stunted trees of Abies

spectabilis mixed with Betula utilis, Salix spp.,

Lonicera obovata, L. heterophylla, Ribes himalensis,

Ribes villosum. In these disturbed habitats occasionally

Pinus wallichiana trees occupy open spaces.

In places where soil is less stable mainly tall

herbaceous species grow gregariously like Sambucus

wightiana, Impatiens glandulifera, Aconitum laeve,

Paeonia emodi, with other low growing herbs.

Caltha alba is common along marshy areas around melting

snow at higher elevations. Bergenia stracheyi is

frequent on moist, shady rocky habitats and form large

patches. Some fern species sometimes also form dense

growth like Osmunda claytoniana forming almost pure

community along Muro river above 2700 m.

Most of the small summer villages are situated in these

conifer forests. Graziers moving in these villages

during summer depend on these forests for firewood and

44

logs for repair of their huts. These forests are the

only source of fodder to grazing animals in early spring

which move to higher alpine pasture later in the season.

Some areas show signs of intense grazing with hardly

anything left in the late monsoon season. The

regeneration of the main tree species is also declining

in these areas with a few young trees and some times no

seedlings are observed. Some patches of dead old trees

are scattered throughout the area.

4.5.3 BROAD-LEAVED DECIDUOUS FOREST

This community was studied in Khabkot valley. Deciduous

broad-leaved tree communities occupy the valley floor

along streams from 2200-2800 m. In some places some

times narrow strips of broad leaved trees ascends higher

up along scree slopes where deeper soil and enough

moisture is available. Typical examples of this kind of

forests can be seen in other valleys like Sharyal and

Muro river valleys. A variety of species form more or

less close canopy forests including Juglans regia, Acer

caesium, A. cappadocicum, Aesculus indica, Prunus

cornuta, Ulmus wallichiana, Populus ciliata, Alnus

nitida, Sorbus lanata, etc. The dominant species and

percentage area cover vary from place to place.

Generally Juglans regia, Ulmus wallichiana, Aesculus

indica, Alnus nitida and Acer spp, make up patches

dominated by one or two species covering about 30-40% of

the area and accompanied by other species thus giving

the community a mosaic kind of appearance. The community

is multi-layered with trees of different heights which

give it a dense appearance. At higher elevations along

the valley floor Betula utilis becomes dominant in the

community replacing Juglans regia, Ulmus wallichiana and

45

Aesculus indica which are more common at lower

elevations. Height of the main tree species varies from

8-20 m approximately. On several locations the ground is

filled with large rocks and big boulders. Seeds

collected from different tree species showed severe

insect attack.

Ulmus wallichiana generally grows as a scattered tree in

its distribution range. It is included in the list of

endangered species in IUCN red data book. In Khabkot

valley it forms the second largest known population, and

sufficient regeneration is observed in the area. Several

mature trees attaining a height of about 20 m are

scattered in broad-leaved forest from 2000-2600 m. Seeds

are produced profusely but most of the seeds fall

prematurely. The trees show signs of heavy insect

attack.

Root bark is collected from Juglans regia trees on

commercial scale. For this purpose two year old roots of

mature trees are dug out and bark is removed and dried

for sale. Several mature trees are dying due to

excessive damage.

The undergrowth also varies from place to place

depending on the density of canopy and depth of humus

layer and underground substrate. Common species of

shrubs in these communities include Viburnum

cotonifolium, V. gradiflorum, Staphelia emodi, Sorbaria

tomentosa, Syringa emodi. Herbaceous species in the

forest include Hackelia macrophylla, H. uncinata,

Podophyllum hexandrum, Trillidium govanianum, Asparagus

filicinus, Polygonatum multiflorum, P. geminiflorum,

Epipactis veratrifolia etc.

46

In some localities, especially on shady places, much

branched shrubby form of Taxus wallichiana grows in

association with the broad-leaved trees with little

herbaceous under growth. On some shady sites thick layer

of humus is accumulated.

Dense herbaceous growth is characteristic on the valley

floor at the edge of broad-leaved forests especially

along stream banks. Various species making up these

communities at different localities are: Sambucus

wightiana, Viola biflora, Polemonium coeruleum,

Impatiens glandulifera, Impatiens sulcata, Corydalis

stewartii, Thalictrum elegans, Clematis connata,

Clematis montana, Senecio chrysanthemoides, Campanula

latifolia, Cypripedium cordigerum, Lilium polyphyllum,

etc.

Broad-leaved forest are subjected to heavy grazing by

passing herds which make their way through these

forests. Young roots of Juglans regia are extracted on

commercial scale. This unchecked practice is not only

killing several mature trees but it is also disturbing

the balance of the entire community. There is little

under growth in those areas where the soil is regularly

disturbed by grazing animals preventing the

establishment of herbs or shrubs.

4.5.4 GRAZED AVALANCHE MEADOW

The community is dominated by Isodon rugosus covering

about 30% of the area. Other accompanying shrubs include

Rosa webbiana, Cotoneaster spp., Jasminum humile,

Euphorbia wallichiana which cover about 10% of the area.

Qeurcus floribunda is rare in the community. Common

47

herbs include Thymus linearis, Valeriana stracheyi,

Androsace rotundifolia, Nepeta connata, Fragaria

nubicola, Bistorta amplexicaulis, Hypericum perforatum,

Jaeschkea oligosperma growing on about 5% of the area.

Remaining species grow in about 3% area. Among grasses

Chrysopogon gryllus ssp echinulatus is the codominant

species in the community occupying about 30% of the

area. Piptatherum munroi is covering about 5% of the

area. Verbascum thapsus is a rare herb in the community.

A common community on open slopes ranging from moderate

to steep inclination about 20o to 30o. In general the

slope is rocky and stony with varying degrees of soil

depth and moisture contents. The community is two

layered dominated by shrubs growing to a height of about

50 cm forming open kind of canopy. In the ground layer

the tussock forming grass Chrysopogon gryllus ssp

echinulatus grows up to 40 cm high, develops on open

spaces between shrubs. The herb layer is about 10 cm

high in average. Several communities of shrubby species

can be observed in the area: Rosa webbiana, Sorbaria,

tomentosa, Cotoneaster spp. are more frequent and

sometimes form almost pure patches. Some scattered young

plants of Pinus wallichiana grow among these shrubby

patches which characteristically fill up open places

created by natural or anthropogenic disturbances. The

area is subjected to heavy grazing pressure by goats and

cattle during the summer months. The vegetation cover

varies from place to place depending on the degree of

grazing pressure. Most of the shrubs appear stunted in

growth due to heavy grazing in the area.

48

4.5.5 AVALANCHE MEADOW MODERATELY GRAZED

A mixed community of low growing shrubs like Rosa

webbiana, Spiraea vaccinifolia, Euphorbia wallichiana,

Cotoneaster spp., etc. covering about 20% of the area.

Viburnum cotinifolium, Indigofera heterantha, Asparagus

filicinus cover about 5% of the area. Bistorta

amplexicaulis is a common herb, covering almost 20% of

the area along with the common sedge Carex kashmirensis.

The remaining species cover about 3% of the area.

Species rich community growing on rocky steep slopes

with a varying degree of soil depth and soil moisture. A

typical avalanche swept area with changing species

diversity and vegetation cover depending on soil and

moisture level. In general throughout the avalanche

field dominance of different shrub species also varies

in correlation with grazing pressure (goat grazing from

Ilobek). Spiraea and Cotoneaster show signs of heavy

grazing. The shrub layer is about 70 cm high and the

underlying herb layer is about 20cm high. Shrubs in

general show stunted growth and are scattered in the

community leaving open spaces in between for herbs and

grasses.

4.5.6 AVALANCHE SHRUB COMMUNITY DOMINATED BY RHAMNUS-

VIBURNUM

The shrub layer in this community forms a more or less

close canopy. The community is dominated by Rhamnus

purpureus which occupies about 50% of the area. The

codominant species are Viburnum cotinifolium and Prunus

cornuta covering about 20% of the area. Viburnum

grandiflorum, Syringa emodi, Indigofera heterantha, Rosa

49

macrophylla, Berberis aitchisonii, Lonicera microphylla,

Salix sp., Abies pindrow are found in about 10% of the

area. Other shrubs like Cotoneaster sp., Taxus

wallichiana, Pinus wallichiana, Picea smithiana, Betula

utilis forms a component of less than 5%.

A large number of herbaceous species form the lower

layer. Dominant among these are Bistorta amplexicaulis,

and Fragaria nubicola which cover about 10% of the area.

Geranium wallichianum, Origanum vulgare, Androsace

foliosa, Aquilegia pubiflora, Viola canescence have a

coverage of about 5%. Remaining species are less

frequent and have a coverage of less than 5%. Rheum

webbianum and Podophyllum hexandrum are rare in the

community.

This is a two-layered species rich close canopy forming

shrub community. Shrub layer have a average height of up

to 3m. Several species mainly of herbs form the ground

layer with average height of up to 20 cm growing under

the shade of shrubs.

This kind of community is characteristic of steep to

moderate slopes with an inclination from 20o to 30o and

heavy snow accumulation during winter. The dominance of

different species of shrubs varies all along the slope

possibly depending on the soil, rocky and stony

substrate, movement of snow on the slope, and grazing

pressure. The composition of species also changes with

increasing elevations. Betula utilis gradually increase

and dominate the ccommunity with increasing elevation.

These slopes are regularly used for grazing during

summer.

50

4.6 SUB-ALPINE AND ALPINE ZONE 2800-4500 M

It is difficult to draw a definite line between sub

alpine and alpine zone. Generally sub alpine dwarf shrub

communities and Betula forest start within upper montane

forest communities from 2800 m and extend up to the zone

of alpine meadows up to 3500 m. At higher elevations,

above 3300 m vast areas are covered by dense meadows of

Kobresia spp. which are occasionally interrupted by tall

herbaceous communities of species of Swertia,

Pedicularis, Potentilla, Nepeta, Primula, etc.

Typical sub-alpine plants include Sibbaldia cuneata,

Bistorta affine which carpet the area in large patches

with some deep soil. On moist rocky outcrops Rhodiola

quadrifida, Pedicularis punctata, Saxifraga asarifolia,

S. stenophylla, Burgenia stracheyi are dominant.

A great variety of communities is found in the alpine

and sub-alpine zone which occupy different habitats.

Some representative communities are described below.

4.6.1 MIXED SHRUB COMMUNITY

Several species of shrubs occupy disturbed habitats

created by sliding snow which prevent the establishment

of tall tree species. Mixed shrub communities are also

typical on the base of the ridges at higher elevations

in the valley especially around Kunari village in

Khabkot and Muro river valley. The growth is especially

dense along the edges of avalanche scree slopes. More

common associated species include Salix denticulata, S.

disperma, S. daphnoides, Lonicera heterophylla L.

obovata, etc. The herbaceous species associated with

these communities include Primula macrophylla, P. rosea,

51

Ranunculus munroanus, R. hirtellus, Carex kashmirensis,

Sibbaldia cunueata, etc.

4.6.2 BETULA UTILIS FOREST

Characteristically Betula utilis communities are found

at the edge of snow avalanche slopes from 2500-3500 m

but some thickets of Betula can be seen as low as 1800 m

in Khabkot valley growing in the deciduous broad-leaved

forests. With increase in elevation on valley floor

broad-leaved deciduous trees are gradually replaced by

Betula utilis. Occasionally Acer caesium, Prunus

cornuta, Sorbus lanata are found among Betula stands as

high as 2900 m. Tree trunks are typical in shape,

growing horizontally near the ground bending upwards due

to action of moving snow. Sometimes they form almost

pure stands with thin undergrowth. In other localities a

variety of other shrub species forms mixed shrubby

vegetation. Common species of shrubs forming mixed

vegetation include Ribes villosa, Rosa macrophylla,

Skimmea anquetilia, Syringa emodi, Lonicera spp, Salix

spp, Viburnum spp., etc. Herbaceous undergrowth is dense

and varied in places with deeper soil and enough

moisture.

4.6.3 DWARF JUNIPER-RHODODENDRON SCRUB COMMUNITY

The Betula community is gradually replaced by dwarf

shrub communities of Juniperus communis, J. squamata and

Rhododendron anthopogon growing up to 1 m high. In some

localities Lonicera myrtillis and L. obovata are not

uncommon. Dense thickets of prostrate shrubs of Juniper

cover large areas. In between empty places, cushion-like

growth of Cassiope fastigiata, Androsace mucronifolia

52

and carpet forming species of Gaultheria trichophylla,

Salix flabellaris and Rhododendron anthopogon ssp

hypenanthum cover more rocky ground. Large dense patches

of Bistorta affine are common throughout the valley in

sub-alpine and alpine areas.

4.6.4 SUB-ALPINE PASTURE SIBBALDIA CUNEATA COMMUNITY

A total of 19 species were recorded in the community.

The dominant species is Sibbaldia cuneata which covers

about 60% of the total area. The codominant species are

Thymus linearis, and Agrostis pilosula which contribute

more than 10% of the area. The remaining species have

cover less than 5% of the area.

In general the area is characterized by more or less

flat land and undulating gentle slopes. This is a man

made pasture land created by removing trees. Some

scattered fir trees are still found on surrounding

slopes. The area is regularly used for grazing by

livestock moved during summer from lower villages.

Generally the community gives the impression of very low

growing prostrate kind of herbaceous plants with average

height of 2-5 cm. The ground cover is relatively high

showing fast growth rate, the soil is rich with

sufficient moisture. Several streams coming from melting

snow on surrounding slopes produce some marshy patches

in the depressions.

The area is under heavy grazing pressure by goats,

sheep, cows and buffaloes. Some large patches of

Pteridium aquilinum and Cirsium wallichii are expanding

around small village settlements. Some thickets of

Viburnum grandiflorum are scattered throughout the area.

53

Night camping bare sites of live stock are surrounded by

vigorously growing pure communities of Rumex nepalensis

and Polygonum paronychioides. Some scattered stunted and

lopped trees of Abies grow on surrounding slopes.

4.6.5 KOBRESIA COMMUNITY with moderate grazing

About 19 species are recorded from this community. The

dominant species is Kobresia royleana which covers about

50% of the total area. The codominant species are

Leontopodium himalayanum, Sibbaldia cuneata, Phlomis

bracteosa, Potentilla cathaclinis, which cover up to 20%

of the total area. Other species have up to 5% coverage.

The area is sub-alpine meadow with gentle wind swept

slopes and pronounced snow gradation. The community is

mainly composed of low growing herbaceous species with

rossette leaves. Growth is fairly dense and ground cover

is continuous with creeping species. The soil holds

enough moisture for dense growth. It appears to be

relatively species rich community with moderate grazing.

The grazing starts in late June when people move from

lower winter villages to alpine pastures.

In surrounding area on scree slopes patches of Juniperus

communis , J. squamata, Salix sp., Lonicera microphylla,

dwarf Pinus wallichiana are found. In snowbed

depressions Swertia speciosa-Sibbaldia cuneata community

is dominant on shaddy aspects.

4.6.6 RUMEX NEPALENSIS COMMUNITY - nitrogen rich site

Rumex nepalensis is dominant in the community covering

more than 60% of the area. Senecio chrysanthemoides,

Sibbaldia cuneata and Poa supina cover about 10% of the

54

area. The remaining species form together a component of

less than 5%.

The area is more or less flat spot on the top of the

ridge. It is the night camping site of livestock, the

soil is rich in nitrogen. It is a typical community of

disturbed habitats often seen around cattle pens near

human settlements. Most of the species are weedy which

occupy the bare areas created by trampling and resting

of grazing animals Polygonum paronychioides, Arenaria

serpyllifolia, Sagina saginoides, Epilobium hirsutum,

Veronica biloba, Taraxacum sp., etc., predominantly

herbaceous species show luxuriant growth and are up to

30 cm tall or more.

4.6.7 SNOW BED FORB COMMUNITY

Sibbaldia cuneata, Saussurea atkinsonii and Geum elatum

are dominant in the community covering 40-50% of the

area. Phlomis bracteosa and Bistorta affine are

codominant covering up to 5% of the area. Kobresia

royleana and Carex pseudobicolor are character species

of the community covering about 10% of the area. The

remaining species cover less than 5% of the community

area.

The community is characteristic of high altitude alpine

meadows found on gentle to steep slopes. Soil is rich

with sufficient moisture contents. Tall growing species

grow to a height of up to 20cm. Most of the species are

low growing with basal rossets of leaf like Geum elatum

and Saussurea atkinsonii cover the ground.

There is moderate grazing in the area showing sufficient

regeneration by the plants. Mainly creeping and

55

spreading species form more or less continuous cover on

the ground. In surrounding areas some thickets of

shrubby Juniperus squamata, Juniperus communis,

Rhododendron sp. form scrub vegetation on the margins of

meados. On moist shaddy rocks Rhodiola quadrifida is

common.

4.6.8 KOBRESIA COMMUNITY WITH MANY FORBS

The dominant species in this community is Kobresia

capillifolia covering about 30% of the area. Saussurea

atkinsonii, Potentilla monanthes, Rhodiola quadrifida,

Swertia speciosa are codominant species covering about

20% of the area. Achillea millaefolium, Androsace

mucronifolia, Anaphalis nubigena, Tanacetum

dolichophyllum form up to 10% of the covered area. The

remaining species are found on less than 5% of the area.

This is a characteristic alpine community at higher

altitudes on moderate to steep slopes. Vegetation is

developed on morain deposits of small rocks and gravel

of about 0.20 cm in diameter. The humus layer is

relatively shallow and shows effects of cryoturbation.

Tall herbs grow to an average height of 15 cm. Most of

the species are low growing covering the ground with

basal leaves or prostrate habit. Close to the releve

Kobresia capillifolia forms a dense strip 1.5-4 m wide,

a prominent feature at the edge of ridge along a deep

ravine.

4.6.9 ROCK SCREE VEGETATION WITH DRABA TRINERVA.

The dominant species is Draba trinerva covering less

than 20% of the area. Rhodiola quadrifida and Androsace

mucronifolia are the character species growing on about

56

10% of the area. The remaining species have less than 5%

of the cover area.

This is relatively species poor community characteristic

of exposed rocky drier areas. About 12 species were

recorded in the area. Plants grow in rock crevices where

they find some soil and moisture.

The slope is very steep characterized by big boulders

and rocks with much fine rocky material in between.

Heavy snow accumulates which melts slowly in summer and

water infiltrates the rocks so that very little moisture

is available near the surface for plant growth. The

accumulated snow moves along with large rocks making the

slope very unstable.

From a distance the slope appear to be without any

plants but close examination of the area reveals a

number of species forming cushions or clumps growing in

rock crevices where some soil and moisture is available.

A number of species grow at different elevations

throughout the slope. Thawing snow patches provide water

during summer.

Some stunted shrubs of Lonicera semenovii grow near the

top of the slope. Some tall species of Carex are

prominent throughout the slope growing between the

rocks.

4.6.10 TALL FORB SPECIES RICH COMMUNITY WITH LNDELOFIA

DOMINATING

This relatively species rich community is dominated by

Lindelofia longiflora which covers about 50% of the

area. Euphorbia wallichiana and Aconitum heterophyllum

are codominant occupying about 20% of the area. Senecio

57

chrysanthemoides, Fragaria nubicola, Primula

denticulata, Sibbaldia cuneata, Lotus corniculatus,

Origanum vulgare, are other frequently occurring species

which cover about 5% to 10% of the area. The remaining

species occupy less than 5% of the area. A total of 35

species is recorded from the community. Grasses and

sedges also form a considerable component of the

community with Carex spp cover of about 20% and Agrostis

stolonifera covering about 10% of the area.

Tall herb layer up to 40 cm tall is dominant in the

community. Low growing tufted species and creeping and

trailing species form the ground layer. The community is

typically found on moderate to steep slopes ranging from

20o-35o and characterized by sufficient snow

accumulation. The rich soil, sufficient moisture and

comparatively deeper humus layer support high

productivity.

4.6.11 RUMEX-SAMBUCUS COMMUNITY OF DISTURBED HABITATS

The community is characterized by Rumex nepalensis which

covers about 60% of the area. The other codominant

species is Sambucus wightiana which covers up to 20% of

the area. The remaining species form less than 10%.

The community is predominantly composed of tall forbs

which grow around bare areas where local live stock camp

during summer season. Luxuriantly growing tall

herbaceous species form a two-layered community with

Sambucus wightiana forming the tall layer up to 70 cm or

more. The second layer is up to 30 cm tall, occupied by

Rumex nepalensis and Senecio chrysanthemoides. Grasses

are insignificant in this kind of communities and are

58

confined to the ground level. Generally, the species

which do not have grazing preference occupy the area.

Soil is deep and rich in nitrogen.

59

5. CONCLUSION

Geographically Palas valley is situated in the dry inner

ranges of Northwest Himalaya. The present study is the

first botanical investigation in the valley ever done.

The results reveal that the area is rich in plant

biodiversity. At present the vegetation shows minimum

human impact. Most parts of all vegetation zones have

plant communities in almost natural state.

A checklist of the plants contain about 600 species of

flowering plants and pteridophytes. Three new species,

Jasminum leptophyllum R.A.Rafiq, Delphinium palasianum

R.A.Rafiq and Pseudomertensia flavescens R.A.Rafiq were

discovered during the present investigation. Seven

species endemic to Pakistan are found in Palas. Some

rare species endemic to Pakistan collected during the

present study include Rhamnella gilgitica and

Pseudomertensia sericophylla which were known from the

type locality only. Some other rare species are

collected from the valley which have limited

distribution range and are known from small scattered

populations.

Most species are found in a wide range of altitude from

lower montane to alpine zone.

The chorological spectrum of species shows that about

2/3 of the species have restricted distribution in

adjoining mountain ranges. Only about 1/3 of the species

have a wideranging distribution pattern.

There are 2 species endemic to Palas and 5 species are

endemic to Palas and North Pakistan. About 26 species

found in Palas are confined to North Pakistan and

60

Kashmir, 43 species extend from Pakistan to NW India. 40

species are distributed from East Afghanistan, North

Pakistan and Kashmir to NW India. 33 species are

distributed between East Afghanistan and Nepal. 33

species are distributed in East Afghanistan and

throughout the Himalaya. There are about 48 species

distributed from Central Asia to Himalaya and half of

the species have their easternmost boundaries up to NW

India. About 55 species are distributed between SW China

and East Afghanistan, 30 species have the westernmost

limits in Pakistan, the remaining 23 species extend up

to East Afghanistan.

The phytosociological study shows that a great variety

of habitats is found in different vegetation zones which

host some unique species of plants. Most plant

communities are regenerating naturally. All vegetation

zones have some characteristic communities and species

which deserve protection. A remarkable variety of

communities is found in the sub-alpine and alpine zones

due to the relatively large area available above 3000 m.

One new species was collected from each vegetation zone.

Endemics and restricted range species are also

distributed in all vegetation zones. However, a high

percentage of species with restricted range of

distribution is found in alpine areas because of the

great variety of habitats available.

This study will provide baseline information for future

research and sustainable development planning for the

area.

61

6. RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 CONSERVATION PRIORITIES-APPROACHES AND MECHANISMS

1. Designate Palas as a protected area

Based on the results of present study, Palas appears

to merit protected status as an outstanding example

of West Himalayan vegetation. This protected status

should extend to all four main vegetation zones -

dry scrub forest, temperate forest, sub-alpine

birchwood and alpine zone - and over as great an

area of the valley as possible.

2. Strengthen community natural resource management

Given that Palas is not state property, protected

status must be secured with local participation,

rather than imposed from above. Most forest and

pasture resources in Palas are managed under common

property regimes, which include ecologically

sophisticated rotational use of the resource through

the practice of transhumance. Traditional tribal

institutions remain strong. These institutions,

regimes and practices should be strengthened to

ensure ecologically sustainable use, and to serve as

a pilot for government-community partnership in the

management of protected areas in Pakistan.

3. Consider nomination of Palas as Biosphere Reserve

Palas, as one of the least modified examples of

typical West Himalayan vegetation in Pakistan, would

serve as a valuable benchmark site for monitoring of

global environmental change. Consideration should

62

therefore be given to nomination of Palas as a

Biosphere Reserve under the UNESCO Man and Biosphere

Programme, and provision should be made for

monitoring of vegetation change in Palas.

4. Address key threats to each major vegetation zone

Safeguard dry scrub forest against commercial

firewood exploitation and road construction, or

where common property regimes are breaking down.

Safeguard temperate forest against excessive

commercial exploitation and institute community

controls against excessive local use.

Rehabilitate degraded alpine pastures and check

gulleying.

5. Introduce species specific conservation measures

Introduce measures to safeguard Juglans regia

against unsustainable collection of root-bark

('dandasa').

Safeguard CITES listed species Sassurea costus

('menyal') and Podophyllum hexandrum ('shangoy') and

Dioscorea deltoidea ('chalyon') against

unsustainable exploitation.

Safeguard Taxus against possible threat of

exploitation (for taxol).

6. Prevent introduction of exotic species

Exotic species are being introduced into District

Kohistan by the Forest Department under the various

programmes. The Forest Department should adopt a

63

policy not to plant any exotic species in Palas,

which would threaten the biodiversity value of the

area. (An exception is on-farm fruit trees, for

which there appears to be significant potential for

introduction.)

7. Land utilization for development work

Construction of roads and landuse for agricultural

purposes must protect plant communities with rare

and endemic species. For example Jasminum

leptophyllum (endemic to Palas) and Rhamnella

gilgitica (endemic to N Pakistan)are found in lower

slopes along main Palas river where road is under

construction.

8. Settelment of ownership rights and other

political disputes

Due to disputes over ownership rights on some

pasture lands between neighboring vallies and

disputes over forest revenueamong different tribes

is necessarry to remove pressure on forest and

pasture areas.

6.2 FURTHER RESEARCH PRIORITIES

• The present study is based on data collected from a

part of the Palas valley. Other parts of the valley

needed to be explored to complete the study which

include Plant collection and community study from

upper Palas valley.

• Collection of spring flora from lower Palas valley.

• Collect information on plants of socioeconomic value.

64

6.3 PAPERS TO BE PREPARED FOR PUBLICATIONS

• Some rare plants of the area

• phytogeographic affinities of Palas valley.

• Plants of socio-economic value

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72

8. ANNEX

8.1 CHECKLIST OF PLANTS OF PALAS VALLEY

8.2 PHYTOGEOGRAPHY

8.3 ECOLOGY LOCALITIES OF TABLE -.1

DATE REL. LOCALITY COMMUNITY

ALT.

(m)

EXP. INCL.

(O)

AREA

(m2)

2/7 01 Sherakot pass

Cedrus-Pinus

2340 E 12 400

2/7 02 Shawalay Mix conifer 2300 NW 15 400

2/7 03 Shawalay Cedrus-Pinus 2300 NE

15 400

2/7 04 Shawalay

Cedrus-Pinus

2200 E 25 400

3/7 05 Sharyal Mix shrub 2000 W 15 300

3/7 06 Sharyal Mix shrub 2350 NW

25 225

3/7 07 Burchhin Cedrus-Pinus 2550 S 30 400

3/7 08 Burchhin

Cedrus-Pinus 2570 W 30 400

3/7 09 Magri Picea-Cedrus 2650 N 25 400

3/7 10 Magri Picea-Abies 2800 N 22 225

3/7 11 Magri-Muru Picea-Abies 2800 N 20 400

4/7 12 Above Muru Picea-Abies 2800 NW

22 400

4/7 13 Beyond Muru Picea-Abies 2800 N 30 200

4/7 14 Above Khawari Picea-Abies 2900 W 30 200

4/7 15 Above Khawari Picea-Abies 2900 NW 25 200

4/7 16 Above Khawari

Picea-Abies 2800 E 27 400

4/7 17 Shushe bek Picea-Abies 3050 W 30 200

5/7 18 Shushe bek Picea-Abies 3050 W 35 400

5/7

19 Above Khabkot Picea-Abies 3000 E 35 400

5/7 20 Above Khabkot Salix-shrubs 3000 E 35 400

5/7 21 Above Khabkot Salix-shrubs 3000 N 25 200

5/7 22 Above Khabkot Abies-Pinus 3000 N 35 200

5/7 23 Khabkot Right Broad-leaved 2470 W 30 400

5/7 24 Khabkot Right Broad-leaved 2480 W 25 400

5/7 25 Khabkot Right Broad-leaved 2510 NW

25 400

5/7 26 Khabkot Right Broad-leaved 2520 W 20 400

5/7 27 Khabkot Right

Broad-leaved 2470 NW 25 400

6/7 28 Khabkot Left Broad-leaved 2470 NE

20 400

6/7 29 Khabkot Left Broad-leaved 2480 E 30 400

6/7 30 Khabkot Left Broad-leaved 2520 NE 35 400

6/7 31 Khabkot Left Broad-leaved 2550 NE

35 400

6/7 32 Khabkot Left Broad-leaved 2550 E 25 400

6/7 33 Khabkot Left Betula-Shrub 2550 NE

15 400

6/7 34 Khabkot Left Betula-Shrub

2700 E 30 400

6/7 35 Khabkot Left Salix-Shrub 3000 E 20 400

6/7 36 Khabkot Left Salix-Shrub 3000 W 25 225

7/7 37 Khabkot Right Salix-Shrub 3050 NW 25 100

7/7 38 Khabkot Right Salix-Shrub 2950 W 30 200

7/7 39 Khabkot Right Betula-Shrub 2950 W 30 100

7/7 40 Khabkot Right Betula-Shrub 2950 SW 25 400

7/7 41 Khabkot Right Betula-Shrub 2850 NW

20 400

7/7 42 Khabkot Right

Betula-Shrub

2850 W 35 400

8/7 43 Ilobek-Bosh Mix Shrub 2300 SW

20 400

8/7 44 Ilobek-Bosh Que. flor 2400 S 20 400

8/7 45 Ilobek-Bosh Cedrus-Q. flo 2400 SW 22 400

8/7 46 Ilobek-Bosh Cedrus-Q. flo 2400 SW 30 400

141

8/7

47 Near Bosh

Cedrus-Pinus 2450 W 35 400

8/7 48 Bosh Cedrus-Pinus 2450 NW 15 400

8/7 49 Bosh Cedrus-Pinus 2450 NE 20 400

8/7 50 Above Bar ser Cedrus-Pinus 2280 E 35 400

9/7 51 Above Bar ser Cedrus forest 2060 W 35 400

9/7 52 Shuki Ser Cedrus forest 1980 N 25 400

9/7 53 Shuki Ser Cedrus-Q. ball 1870 E 35 225

9/7 54 Shuki Ser Cedrus-Q. ball 1920 NW 35 225

9/7 55 Shuki Ser Cedrus-Q. ball 2000 W 25 225

9/7 56 Near Bosh Cedrus-Q. ball 2060 W 15 225

9/7 57 Near Bosh Cedrus forest 2100 NW 20 225

9/7 58 Near Bosh Cedrus forest 2200 W 20 225

9/7 59 Near Bosh Cedrus forest

2200 N 25 225

9/7 60 Khabkot Ridge Cedrus-Pinus 2330 W 35 400

9/7 61 Khabkot Ridge

Cedrus-Q. flo

2340 SW 35 400

10/7 62 Khabkot left Broad-leaved 2300 NE 10 400

10/7 63 Khabkot left Betula mix for 2280 E 15 400

10/7 64 Khabkot left Broad leaved 2250 SE 10 400

10/7 65 Khabkot Right Broad leaved 2130 SW

20 225

10/7 66 Khabkot Right Quer balloot 1900 W 20 225

10/7 67 Khabkot Right Quer balloot 1800 W 20 225

10/7

68 Khabkot Right

Quer balloot

1700 N 20 225

1/8 69 Muru Sibbaldia 2800 N 10 9

1/8 70 Muru Sibbaldia 2800 N 12 9

1/8 71 Muru Sibbaldia 2800 N 10 9

2/8 72 Above Gutab Kobresia

3670 E 23 16

2/8 73 Above Gutab Rumex 3670 - -- 16

2/8 74 Above Gutab Sibbaldia 3670 E 30 16

142

3/8

75 Kunari Kobresia

4100 E 30 9

3/8 76 Kunari Draba 4100 W 35 9

4/8 77 Ilobek Mix Shrub 2500 W 27 15

4/8 78 Ilobek Mix Shrub 2600 W 30 15

4/8 79 Ilobek Mix Shrub

2650 W 30 400

5/8 80 Ilobek Betula 2740 W 30 200

5/8 81 Tikohsar Lindelofia

3150 SW

30

25

5/8 82 Tikohsar

Sambucus 3200 N 5 16

6/8 83 Bosh Cedrus forest 2440 NE

20 300

6/8 84 Bosh Cedrus forest 2440 N 20 400

8.4 PLANTS OF SOCIO ECONOMIC VALUE

Local name Latin Name Altitudinal range (m)

Distribution Statusin Palas

Habit Parts used Utilization

1. aoon Viburnum cotinifolium 900-3500 HM V T fruit food

1. ashano Aesculus indica 1600-2700 HK, HM V T seed medicine

1. azano Artemisia brevifolia. 1500-4200 HK, HM V S leaf medicine

1. badbatin Salix spp. 2400-3500 F S wood fuel

1. bani Quercus baloot 900-2200 Hk, NWH V T leaf fodder

1. banke Polygonum paronychioides 2400-4300 CA, HK, NWH C S leaf/seed medicine

1. beon Salix Spp. 2400-3500 F T leaf fodder, fuel

1. bhang Cannabis sativa up to 2500 weed C S leaf medicine

143

1. bhareet Prunus cornuta 2300-3200 HK, HM, China V T wood firewood, fodder, medicine

1. burbur Anthriscus nemorosa 2400-3500

Widespread F H ? ?

1. buti Geum elatum 2700-4300 HM V H leaf medicine, vegetable

1. chain Acer cappadocicum 2000-3000 CA, HK, HM V T leaf fodder

1. chalyon Dioscorea deltoidea 2200-3000 HK, HM, China V C root medicine

1. chin Acer caesium 2000-3000 HK, HM V T wood firewood

1. chodan Taxus wallichiana 2200-3000 Widespread V T fruit/bark medicine, food

1. choee Pinus wallichiana 1800-3300 HK, HM C T wood firewood, timber, torchwood

1. chokibeiyon Celtis caucasica 900-2200 MED F S leaf medicine

1. choko Aconogonum alpinum 1500-3000 TNH F S leaf ?

1. chotyal Rheum webbianum 2400-4300 HM T H root medicine

1. chukni Jurinea dolomiaea 3200-4300 HM T H root medicine, chewingum, mouth freshner

1. chur Angelica glauca 2000-4000 HK, HM V H root to attract honeybees

1. danon Punica granatum 700-2700 MED F T fruit/bark food, medicine

1. dindhasa Juglans regia 1000-2800 TNH V T rootbark, medicine, cosmetic

1. geroli Quercus baloot 900-2200 HK, HM V T seed medicine

1. ghanari Amaranthus hybridus 1200-2000 Weed C H leaf vegetable

1. ghandli Sambucus wightianum 2400-4000 HK, HM C S root medicine

144

1. gorte Sorbus lanata 2300-3400

HK, HM V T fruit food

1. guchi Morchella esculenta 3000-3500 T F fruit food

1. gup Senecio chrysanthemoides 1400-4000 HM, China C H leaves fodder

1. gurtu Sorbus lanata 2300-3400 HK, HM V T fruit food

1. hargoli Ribes orientale 2200-4000 HK, HM, China R S fruit food

1. hatoi Pteridum aquilinum 1800-3200 TNH C H leaf food

1. hayon Bunium persicum 1000-2000 NH V H seed spices

1. hobobal Rumex spp 800-2000 HK, HM, China C S root/leaf fodder

1. isperki Thymus linearis 2500-3500 HK, HM V H seed, leaf medicine, tea

1. jacho Cirsium falconeri 2700-3500 HM C H root food

1. jau Artemisia scoparia 800-4000 NH C H plant medicine

1. jhojh Betula utilis 2000-4000 HM, China V T bark/leaf paper, medicine, fodder, fuel, tinder

1. jomi Urtica dioica 900-3500 TNH C H leaf/root medicine, vegetable

1. juglote, jhul Viburnum grandiflorum 1500-3000 HM V T fruit, wood food, fuel

1. kalbeer Sorbus microphylla HM R T root medicine

1. kao Olea ferruginea 500-2500 HK, HM C T leaf medicine

1. karal Picea smithiana 2400-3200 HK,HM C T wood firewood, timber

1. karhi Sorbaria tomentosa 1200-3200 IT, SHM C H leaf ?

145

1. kasodar Fraxinus xanthoxyloides 900-2000

HK, HM C T leaf medicine

1. kasti Indigofera heterantha 600-3300 HK, HM, China C S root medicine

1. kathan Wickstroemia canescens 1800-3200 HK, HM, China F S ? ?

1. kaur Cardamine macrophylla 2200-3000 HM, China F H plant vegetable

1. kaur palao Seseli libanotis 1800-4000 TNH F H ? ?

1. kaymat gul Taraxacum sp. 800-4000 Weed F H root medicine

1. khakhai Juglans regia 1000-2800 TNH V T nuts food

1. khako Pistacia chinensis 500-2200 HK, HM V T fruit/bark food, medicine

1. kikloh mukbursa Chenopodium foliosum 2500-3800 TNH F H ? ?

1. koindaru Valeriana straceyi 1200-2800 HK, HM V H ? medicine

1. kondroi Impatiens glandulifera. 2400-4000 HM F H seed food

1. kono Chenopodium album 800-4000 Weed C H leaf vegetable

1. korat Bergenia ciliata 900-2800 HK, HM V H root medicine

1. lagan Melia azidarich 800-1200 T leaf ?

1. lilyo Viola spp. 2000-4000 F H flower medicine

1. loh Galium aparine 800-3600 Weed C H plant medicine

1. loni Cotoneaster bacillaris 1800-3000 HK, HM V S fruit food

1. magrath Vitis jaquemontii 900-2400 HM V C fruit food

146

1. makoth Rhamnella gilgitica 1000-2500

Endemic T S leaf vegetable

1. malkaloh Bistorta affine 2500-4300 HK, HM C S ? ?

1. malphatoi Pedicularis spp. 2500-4300 C H ? ?

1. mamekh Paeonia emodi 2200-3000 HK, HM V H root medicine

1. mamere Corydalis govaniana 2400-4000 HM V H root medicine

1. maniri Aconitum laeve. 2700-4000 NWH V H root medicine

1. minyal Saussuria costus 2000-3300 NWH V H root medicine

1. mukbursah Fragaria nubicola 1800-3300 HM, China C H fruit food

1. mushkbala Valeriana jatamansi 1400-3400 HK, HM V H root medicine

1. muskoro Astragalus subumbellatus 1500-3000 HK, NWH V S root medicine

1. namero Skimmea anquetilia 2400-4000 HK,HM V S leaf medicine

1. nik Jasminum leptohyllum 1500-2000 Endemic T S leaf fumigant for fleas

1. palon Allium humile 3000-4300 HM V H leaf food

1. paloojh Cedrus deodara 1800-3000 HK, HM C T wood firewood, timber

1. pashay Myosotis alpestris 2800-4300 PA F H ? ?

1. pashkar Lonicera caucasica 2000-4000 HM F S ? ?

1. pashot Parrotiopsis jaquemontiana 1500-2500 HK, NWH V S wood firewood

1. peechli Sedum ewersii 2300-4000 IT V H flower medicine

147

1. phagoi Ficus palmata 800-2500

F T fruit food

1. phebel Mentha royleana 1000-3800 TNH C H leaf medicine

1. pulpulak Aconogonon alpinum 1500-3000 TNH F S leaf fish poison

1. punar Inula royleana 2700-4000 NWH R H ? ?

1. rain Abies pindrow 1800-3500 HK, HM C T wood firewood,

1. rain Bistorta amplexicaulis 1800-4300 HK, HM, China V H leaf, root vegetable, medicine

1. rangsalu Lonicera myrtillus 2500-4000 HK, HM V S fruit food

1. raon Achillea millefolium 1800-4000 TNH F H ? ?

1. ratanjokh Geranium wallichianum 2000-4000 HK, HM V H root medicine

1. rath Vitis jaquemontii 900-2400 HM V S fruit food

1. ratrati Arnebia benthamii 2700-3900 HM V H root medicine, dye

1. sezen Ziziphus jujuba 900-2000 MED, IM, SHM F T rootbark medicine

1. shangoy Podophyllum hexandrum 2400-4000 HK, HM, China V H root medicine

1. shegay Rosa webbiana 1800-4300 HM V S flower medicine

1. sheteel Crataegus songarica 1500-2700 CA, HK, HM F S fruit food

1. shugloo Berberis brandisiana 2400-4000 NWH V S seed/root medicine

1. shukhan Aesculus indica 1600-2700 HK, HM V T wood, fruit timber, fuel, medicine

1. shwansh Filipendula vestita 2100-3300 HK, HM V H ? medicine

148

1. sumbul Adiantum venustum 1800-2200

HK, HM,China V H leaf medicine

1. tali Dalbergia sissoo 800 F T bark ?

1. taran Rosa brunonii 900-2500 HM, China F S fruit food

1. thoktokoe Caltha alba 2500-4300 HM V S leaf medicine

1. titrin Euphorbia wallichii 2500-3500 HK, HM, China F S root medicine

1. tondel Rhamnella gilgitica 1000-2500 Endemic V T fruit food

1. trepath Saussurea candolleana 2400-4000 HM F H ? ?

1. tubukoi Jasminum humile 1500-3000 TNH F S ? ?

1. urni Corylus jacquemontii 2400-2700 HM V T seed medicine

1. yumpi Napeta sp 2500-3500 F H leaf medicine

1. zalzalo Isodon rugosa 900-3000 HK,HM,China F S leaf medicine

1. zarotsal Malva parviflora 800-2400 MED C H leaf vegetable

1. zekeeni Rubus niveus 900-3000 F S fruit food

ABBREVIATIONS USED:

CA:Central Asia; HK: Hindukush; HM: Himalayan; IM: Indo-Malayan; IT: Irano-turanian; MED: Mediterrannean

NWH: Northwestern Himalayan; PA: Palaearctic; SHM:Sino-Himalayan; TNH:Temperate Northern Hemisphere

V : vulnerable; T : Threatened; R : Rare ; C : Common : F : frequent

H:Herb; S:Shrub; T:Tree; C:Climber

149