3.1.Reflection of sound by an interface 1 1.138J/2.062J/18.376J, WAVE PROPAGATION Fall, 2004 MIT Notes by C. C. Mei CHAPTER THREE TWO DIMENSIONAL WAVES 1 Reflection and tranmission of sound at an inter- face Reference : Brekhovskikh and Godin §.2.2. The governing equation for sound in a honmogeneous fluid is given by (7.31) and (7.32) in Chapter One. In term of the the veloctiy potential defined by u = ∇φ (1.1) it is 1 c 2 ∂ 2 φ ∂t 2 = ∇ 2 φ (1.2) where c denotes the sound speed. Recall that the fluid pressure p = -ρ∂φ/∂t (1.3) also satisfies the same equation. 1.1 Plane wave in Infinite space Let us first consider a plane sinusoidal wave in three dimensional space φ(x,t)= φ o e i(k·x-ωt) = φ o e i(kn·x-ωt) (1.4) Here the phase function is θ(x,t)= k · x - ωt (1.5)
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3.1.Reflection of sound by an interface 1
1.138J/2.062J/18.376J, WAVE PROPAGATION
Fall, 2004 MIT
Notes by C. C. Mei
CHAPTER THREE
TWO DIMENSIONAL WAVES
1 Reflection and tranmission of sound at an inter-
face
Reference : Brekhovskikh and Godin §.2.2.
The governing equation for sound in a honmogeneous fluid is given by (7.31) and
(7.32) in Chapter One. In term of the the veloctiy potential defined by
u = ∇φ (1.1)
it is1
c2∂2φ
∂t2= ∇2φ (1.2)
where c denotes the sound speed. Recall that the fluid pressure
p = −ρ∂φ/∂t (1.3)
also satisfies the same equation.
1.1 Plane wave in Infinite space
Let us first consider a plane sinusoidal wave in three dimensional space
φ(x, t) = φoei(k·x−ωt) = φoe
i(kn·x−ωt) (1.4)
Here the phase function is
θ(x, t) = k · x − ωt (1.5)
3.1.Reflection of sound by an interface 2
The equation of constant phase θ(x, t) = θo describes a moving surface. The wave
number vector k = kn is defined to be
k = kn = ∇θ (1.6)
hence is orthogonal to the surface of constant phase, and represens the direction of wave
propagation. The frequency is defined to be
ω = −∂θ∂t
(1.7)
Is (2.40) a solution? Let us check (2.38).
∇φ =
(∂
∂x,∂
∂y,∂
∂z
)φ = ikφ
∇2φ = ∇ · ∇φ = ik · ikφ = −k2φ
∂2φ
∂t2= −ω2φ
Hence (2.38) is satisfied if
ω = kc (1.8)
1.2 Two-dimensional reflection from a plane interface
Consider two semi-infinite fluids separated by the plane interface along z = 0. The
lower fluid is distinguished from the upper fluid by the subscript ”1”. The densities and
sound speeds in the upper and lower fluids are ρ, c and ρ1, c1 respectively. Let a plane
incident wave arive from z > 0 at the incident angle of θ with respect to the z axis, the
sound pressure and the velocity potential are
pi = P0 exp[ik(x sin θ − z cos θ)] (1.9)
The velocity potential is
φi = − iP0
ωρexp[ik(x sin θ − z cos θ] (1.10)
The indient wave number vector is
ki = (kix, k
iz) = k(sin θ,− cos θ) (1.11)
3.1.Reflection of sound by an interface 3
The motion is confined in the x, z plane.
On the same (incidence) side of the interface we have the reflected wave
pr = R exp[ik(x sin θ + z cos θ)] (1.12)
where R denotes the reflection coefficient. The wavenumber vector is
kr = (krx, k
rz) = k(sin θ, cos θ) (1.13)
The total pressure and potential are
p = P0 {exp[ik(x sin θ − z cos θ)] +R exp[ik(x sin θ + z cos θ)]} (1.14)
φ = − iP0
ρω{exp[ik(x sin θ − z cos θ)] +R exp[ik(x sin θ + z cos θ)]} (1.15)
In the lower medium z < 0 the transmitted wave has the pressure
p1 = TP0 exp[ik1(x sin θ1 − z cos θ1)] (1.16)
where T is the transmission coefficient, and the potential
φ1 = − iP0
ρ1ωT exp[ik1(x sin θ1 − z cos θ1)] (1.17)
Along the interface z = 0 we require the continutiy of pressure and normal velocity,
i.e.,
p = p1, z = 0 (1.18)
and
w = w1 = 0, z = 0, (1.19)
Applying (2.54), we get
P0
{eikx sin θ +Reikx sin θ
}= TP0e
ik1x sin θ1 , −∞ < x <∞.
Clearly we must have
k sin θ = k1 sin θ1 (1.20)
or,sin θ
c=
sin θ1c1
(1.21)
3.1.Reflection of sound by an interface 4
With (2.56), we must have
1 +R = T (1.22)
Applying (2.55), we have
iP0
ρω
[−k cos θeik sin θ +Rk cos θeik sin θ
]=iP0
ρ1ω
[−k1 cos θ1Te
ik1 sin θ1]
which implies
1 − R =ρk1 cos θ1ρ1k cos θ
T (1.23)
Eqs (2.58) and (2.59) can be solved to give
T =2ρ1k cos θ
ρk1 cos θ1 + ρ1k cos θ(1.24)
R =ρ1k cos θ − ρk1 cos θ1ρ1k cos θ + ρk1 cos θ1
(1.25)
Alternatively, we have
T =2ρ1c1 cos θ
ρc cos θ1 + ρ1c1 cos θ(1.26)
R =ρ1c1 cos θ − ρc cos θ1ρ1c1 cos θ + ρc cos θ1
(1.27)
Let
m =ρ1
ρ, n =
c
c1(1.28)
where the ratio of sound speeds n is called the index of refraction. We get after using
Snell’s law that
R =m cos θ − n cos θ1m cos θ + n cos θ1
=m cos θ − n
√1 − sin2 θ
n2
m cos θ + n√
1 − sin2 θn2
(1.29)
The transmission coefficient is
T = 1 +R =2m cos θ
m cos θ + n√
1 − sin2 θn2
(1.30)
We now examine the physics.
1. If n = c/c1 > 1, the incidence is from a faster to a slower medium, then R is
always real. For normal incidence θ = θ1 = 0,
R =m− n
m+ n(1.31)
3.1.Reflection of sound by an interface 5
is real. If m > n, 0 < R < 1. If θ = π/2,
R = −nn
= −1 (1.32)
Hence R lies on a segment of the real axis as shown in Figur 1.a. If m < n, then
R < 0 for all θ as shown in figure 1.b.
2. If however n < 1 then θ1 > θ. There is a critical incidence angle δ, called Brewster’s
angle and defined by
sin δ = n (1.33)
When θ → δ, θ1 becomes π/2. Below this critical angle (θ < δ), R is real. In
particular, when θ = 0, (2.67) applies. At the critical angle
R =m cos δ
m cos δ= 1
, as shown in figure 2.c for m > n and in 2.d. for m < n.
When θ > δ, the square roots above become imaginary. We must then take
cos θ1 =
√1 − sin2 θ
n2= i
√sin2 θ
n2− 1 (1.34)
This means that the reflection coefficient is now complex
R =m cos θ − in
√sin2 θ
n2 − 1
m cos θ + in√
sin2 θn2 − 1
(1.35)
with |R| = 1, implying complete reflection. As a check the transmitted wave is
now given by
pt = T exp
[k1
(ix sin θ1 + z
√sin2 θ/n2 − 1
)](1.36)
so the amplitude attenuates exponentially in z as z → −∞. Thus the wave train
cannot penetrate much below the interface. The dependence of R on various
parameters is best displayed in the complex plane R = <R + i=R. It is clear
from (2.71 ) that =R < 0 so that R falls on the half circle in the lower half of the
complex plane as shown in figure 2.c and 2.d.
3.1.Reflection of sound by an interface 6
Figure 1: Complex reflection coefficient. From Brekhovskikh and Godin §.2.2.
2 Reflection and tranmission of sound at an inter-
face
Reference : Brekhovskikh and Godin §.2.2.
The governing equation for sound in a honmogeneous fluid is given by (7.31) and
(7.32) in Chapter One. In term of the the veloctiy potential defined by
u = ∇φ (2.37)
it is1
c2∂2φ
∂t2= ∇2φ (2.38)
where c denotes the sound speed. Recall that the fluid pressure
p = −ρ∂φ/∂t (2.39)
also satisfies the same equation.
3.1.Reflection of sound by an interface 7
2.1 Plane wave in Infinite space
Let us first consider a plane sinusoidal wave in three dimensional space
φ(x, t) = φoei(k·x−ωt) = φoe
i(kn·x−ωt) (2.40)
Here the phase function is
θ(x, t) = k · x − ωt (2.41)
The equation of constant phase θ(x, t) = θo describes a moving surface. The wave
number vector k = kn is defined to be
k = kn = ∇θ (2.42)
hence is orthogonal to the surface of constant phase, and represens the direction of wave
propagation. The frequency is defined to be
ω = −∂θ∂t
(2.43)
Is (2.40) a solution? Let us check (2.38).
∇φ =
(∂
∂x,∂
∂y,∂
∂z
)φ = ikφ
∇2φ = ∇ · ∇φ = ik · ikφ = −k2φ
∂2φ
∂t2= −ω2φ
Hence (2.38) is satisfied if
ω = kc (2.44)
2.2 Two-dimensional reflection from a plane interface
Consider two semi-infinite fluids separated by the plane interface along z = 0. The
lower fluid is distinguished from the upper fluid by the subscript ”1”. The densities and
sound speeds in the upper and lower fluids are ρ, c and ρ1, c1 respectively. Let a plane
incident wave arive from z > 0 at the incident angle of θ with respect to the z axis, the
sound pressure and the velocity potential are
pi = P0 exp[ik(x sin θ − z cos θ)] (2.45)
3.1.Reflection of sound by an interface 8
The velocity potential is
φi = − iP0
ωρexp[ik(x sin θ − z cos θ] (2.46)
The indient wave number vector is
ki = (kix, k
iz) = k(sin θ,− cos θ) (2.47)
The motion is confined in the x, z plane.
On the same (incidence) side of the interface we have the reflected wave
pr = R exp[ik(x sin θ + z cos θ)] (2.48)
where R denotes the reflection coefficient. The wavenumber vector is
kr = (krx, k
rz) = k(sin θ, cos θ) (2.49)
The total pressure and potential are
p = P0 {exp[ik(x sin θ − z cos θ)] +R exp[ik(x sin θ + z cos θ)]} (2.50)
φ = − iP0
ρω{exp[ik(x sin θ − z cos θ)] +R exp[ik(x sin θ + z cos θ)]} (2.51)
In the lower medium z < 0 the transmitted wave has the pressure
p1 = TP0 exp[ik1(x sin θ1 − z cos θ1)] (2.52)
where T is the transmission coefficient, and the potential
φ1 = − iP0
ρ1ωT exp[ik1(x sin θ1 − z cos θ1)] (2.53)
Along the interface z = 0 we require the continutiy of pressure and normal velocity,
i.e.,
p = p1, z = 0 (2.54)
and
w = w1 = 0, z = 0, (2.55)
Applying (2.54), we get
P0
{eikx sin θ +Reikx sin θ
}= TP0e
ik1x sin θ1 , −∞ < x <∞.
3.1.Reflection of sound by an interface 9
Clearly we must have
k sin θ = k1 sin θ1 (2.56)
or,sin θ
c=
sin θ1c1
(2.57)
With (2.56), we must have
1 +R = T (2.58)
Applying (2.55), we have
iP0
ρω
[−k cos θeik sin θ +Rk cos θeik sin θ
]=iP0
ρ1ω
[−k1 cos θ1Te
ik1 sin θ1]
which implies
1 − R =ρk1 cos θ1ρ1k cos θ
T (2.59)
Eqs (2.58) and (2.59) can be solved to give
T =2ρ1k cos θ
ρk1 cos θ1 + ρ1k cos θ(2.60)
R =ρ1k cos θ − ρk1 cos θ1ρ1k cos θ + ρk1 cos θ1
(2.61)
Alternatively, we have
T =2ρ1c1 cos θ
ρc cos θ1 + ρ1c1 cos θ(2.62)
R =ρ1c1 cos θ − ρc cos θ1ρ1c1 cos θ + ρc cos θ1
(2.63)
Let
m =ρ1
ρ, n =
c
c1(2.64)
where the ratio of sound speeds n is called the index of refraction. We get after using
Snell’s law that
R =m cos θ − n cos θ1m cos θ + n cos θ1
=m cos θ − n
√1 − sin2 θ
n2
m cos θ + n√
1 − sin2 θn2
(2.65)
The transmission coefficient is
T = 1 +R =2m cos θ
m cos θ + n√
1 − sin2 θn2
(2.66)
We now examine the physics.
3.1.Reflection of sound by an interface 10
1. If n = c/c1 > 1, the incidence is from a faster to a slower medium, then R is
always real. For normal incidence θ = θ1 = 0,
R =m− n
m+ n(2.67)
is real. If m > n, 0 < R < 1. If θ = π/2,
R = −nn
= −1 (2.68)
Hence R lies on a segment of the real axis as shown in Figur 1.a. If m < n, then
R < 0 for all θ as shown in figure 1.b.
2. If however n < 1 then θ1 > θ. There is a critical incidence angle δ, called Brewster’s
angle and defined by
sin δ = n (2.69)
When θ → δ, θ1 becomes π/2. Below this critical angle (θ < δ), R is real. In
particular, when θ = 0, (2.67) applies. At the critical angle
R =m cos δ
m cos δ= 1
, as shown in figure 2.c for m > n and in 2.d. for m < n.
When θ > δ, the square roots above become imaginary. We must then take
cos θ1 =
√1 − sin2 θ
n2= i
√sin2 θ
n2− 1 (2.70)
This means that the reflection coefficient is now complex
R =m cos θ − in
√sin2 θ
n2 − 1
m cos θ + in√
sin2 θn2 − 1
(2.71)
with |R| = 1, implying complete reflection. As a check the transmitted wave is
now given by
pt = T exp
[k1
(ix sin θ1 + z
√sin2 θ/n2 − 1
)](2.72)
so the amplitude attenuates exponentially in z as z → −∞. Thus the wave train
cannot penetrate much below the interface. The dependence of R on various
parameters is best displayed in the complex plane R = <R + i=R. It is clear
from (2.71 ) that =R < 0 so that R falls on the half circle in the lower half of the
complex plane as shown in figure 2.c and 2.d.
3.2.Equations for Elastic Waves 11
Figure 2: Complex reflection coefficient. From Brekhovskikh and Godin §.2.2.
3 Equations for elastic waves
Refs:
Graff: Wave Motion in Elastic Solids
Aki & Richards Quantitative Seismology, V. 1.
Achenbach. Wave Propagation in Elastic Solids
Let the displacement vector at a point xj and time t be denoted by ui(xj, t), then
Newton’s law applied to an material element of unit volume reads
ρ∂2ui
∂t2=∂τij∂xj
(3.1)
where τij is the stress tensor. We have neglected body force such as gravity. For a
homogeneous and isotropic elastic solid, we have the following relation between stress
and strain
τij = λekkδij + 2µeij (3.2)
where λ and µ are Lame constants and
eij =1
2
(∂ui
∂xj+∂uj
∂xi
)(3.3)
3.2.Equations for Elastic Waves 12
is the strain tensor. Eq. (3.2) can be inverted to give
eij =1 + ν
Eτij −
ν
Eτkkδij (3.4)
where
E =µ(3λ+ µ)
λ + µ(3.5)
is Young’s modulus and
ν =λ
2(λ+ µ). (3.6)
Poisson’s ratio.
Substituting (3.2) and (3.3) into (3.1) we get
∂τij∂xj
= λ∂ekk
∂xjδij + µ
∂
∂xj
(∂ui
∂xj+∂uj
∂xi
)
= λ∂ekk
∂xi
+ µ∂2ui
∂xj∂xj
+ µ∂2uj
∂xi∂xj
= (λ+ µ)∂2ui
∂xixj+ µ∇2ui
In vector form (3.1) becomes
ρ∂2u
∂t2= (λ+ µ)∇(∇ · u) + µ∇2u (3.7)
Taking the divergence of (3.1) and denoting the dilatation by
∆ ≡ ekk =∂u1
∂x1
+∂u2
∂x2
+∂u3
∂x3
(3.8)
we get the equation governing the dilatation alone
ρ∂2∆
∂t2= (λ+ µ)∇ · ∇∆ + µ∇2∆ = (λ+ 2µ)∇2∆ (3.9)
or,∂2∆
∂t2= c2L∇2∆ (3.10)
where
cL =
√λ+ 2µ
ρ(3.11)
3.2.Equations for Elastic Waves 13
Thus the dilatation propagates as a wave at the speed cL. To be explained shortly, this
is a longitudinal waves, hence the subscript L. On the other hand, taking the curl of
(3.7) and denoting by ~ω the rotation vector:
~ω = ∇× u (3.12)
we then get the governing equation for the rotation alone
∂2~ω
∂t2= c2T∇2~ω (3.13)
where
cT =
õ
ρ(3.14)
Thus the rotation propagates as a wave at the slower speed cT . The subscript T indicates
that this is a transverse wave, to be shown later.
The ratio of two wave speeds is
cLcT
=
√λ+ µ
µ> 1. (3.15)
Sinceµ
λ=
1
2ν− 1 (3.16)
it follows that the speed ratio depends only on Poisson’s ratio
cLcT
=
√2 − 2ν
1 − 2ν(3.17)
There is a general theorem due to Helmholtz that any vector can be expressed as
the sum of an irrotational vector and a solenoidal vector i.e.,
u = ∇φ+ ∇× H (3.18)
subject to the constraint that
∇ ·H = 0 (3.19)
The scalar φ and the vector H are called the displacement potentials. Substituting this