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1 Prophet Muh ammad's Night Journey To Al-Masjid Al-Aqs a - The Farthest Mosque Muh ammad Ghoniem, Mans ur Ah med, Elias Karim, `Abd al-Rah man Robert Squires & M S M Saifullah © Islamic Awareness, All Rights Reserved. First Published: 5th February 2001 Last Modified: 8th December 2005 Assalamu `alaykum wa rah matullahi wa barakatuhu: 1. Introduction Glory to (Allah) Who did take His Servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the Farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless, - in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is the One Who heareth and seeth (all things). [Qur'an 17:1]
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( Lies Rebuttal Series ) Prophet Muhammad's Night Journey to Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa - The Farthest Mosque

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( Lies Rebuttal Series ) Prophet Muhammad's Night Journey to Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa - The Farthest Mosque
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Page 1: ( Lies Rebuttal Series ) Prophet Muhammad's Night Journey to Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa - The Farthest Mosque

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Prophet Muhammad's Night Journey To Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa - The

Farthest Mosque

Muhammad Ghoniem, Mansur Ahmed, Elias Karim, `Abd al-Rahman Robert

Squires & M S M Saifullah

© Islamic Awareness, All Rights Reserved.

First Published: 5th February 2001

Last Modified: 8th December 2005

Assalamu `alaykum wa rahmatullahi wa barakatuhu:

1. Introduction

Glory to (Allah) Who did take His Servant for a Journey by night

from the Sacred Mosque to the Farthest Mosque,

whose precincts We did bless,

- in order that We might show him some of Our Signs:

for He is the One Who heareth and seeth (all things). [Qur'an 17:1]

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Figure 1: An aerial view of Haram al-Sharif

Many Christian missionaries point to an alleged difficulty concerning the above

passage. They claim that :

The Farthest Mosque (Al-Masjid-ul-Aqs-a) was built many years after the death of Muhammad.

It is utterly impossible that Muhammad visited it on his Night Journey.

They further add :

The Temple of Solomon had been completely destroyed in 70 AD, i.e. 550 years before the

alleged time of the Miraj in 622 AD, the twelfth year of Muhammad's mission. A Temple that

didn't exist anymore does not provide any better solution to this problem than a Mosque which

wasn't built yet.

Similarly, the Christian apologist `Abdallah `Abd al-Fadi says:

Moreover, the Further [sic!] Mosque was not in existence at the time of Muhammad, but was

built about a hundred years after his death! How could he have prayed in it, then, or described

its gates and windows?[1]

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Firstly, al-Aqsa mosque was built not "about a hundred years" after the death of the

Prophet in 11 AH / 632 CE. In 49-50 AH / 670 CE, Bishop Arculfus, a Christian

visitor in Jerusalem, reported:

On the famous place where once stood the temple, the Saracens worship at a square house of

prayer, which they have built with little art, of boards and large beams on the remains of some

ruins...[2]

By the time Bishop Arculfus was in Jerusalem, some 40 years after the death of

Prophet Muhammad, the al-Aqsa mosque was already being used as a place of

worship by Muslims. Secondly, as usual, the solution to such a "difficulty" lies in part

in an elementary knowledge of the Arabic language as well as an understanding of

basic Islamic concepts relating to the word "masjid".

2. What Is A Masjid?

We will begin by dealing with the word masjid from both the linguistic and legal

points of view. The Arabic word for "mosque" is masjid. Discussing with the word

masjid from a linguistic point of view al-Zarkashi says:

Masjid from a linguistic point of view

Linguistically, it comes on the scheme of maf`il with a kasrah [i.e. the 'i' of masjid] which is ism

makan [i.e., name of location] for prostration, while with a fathah [i.e., masjad] it is a masdar.

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Abu Zakariyya al-Farra' [a famous grammarian] said: Every verb coming on the scheme of

fa`ala [in the past form] yaf`ulu [in the present form] like dakhala yadkhulu [which means "to

enter"] admits the form maf`al with a fathah as a noun or masdar without distinction like in

dakhala madkhalan. There are some nouns that were bound to take a kasrah on the second

letter of its root like masjid, matli`, maghrib, mashriq and others, thus making the kasrah a

sign of the noun, and some Arabs may say it with a fathah.

Indeed, masjid and masjad, and matli` and matla` were all narrated.

He said: Putting a fathah in all these forms is admissible even if we did not hear it before.

He said in Al-Sihah: Masjad with a fathah refers to one's forehead which is the place involved in

prostration.[3]

The Arab grammarians classify masjid as "ism makan", i.e., "name of location"; it

indicates the place where an action takes place. Masjid being derived from the root

sa-ja-da (to prostrate), it means "place of prostration". Since a place of worship is a

place where believers prostrate to God, "masjid" is a general term to designate any

place of worship without any religious distinction. Later, this word was used to

designate Islamic places of worship in particular, i.e., the mosques.

The Prophet's night journey was from "the inviolable place of worship" (al-Masjid al-

Haram) to "the farthest place of worship" (al-Masjid al-Aqsa). The former is certainly

located in Makkah, but what about the latter? The reference to Allah blessing its

surroundings (... whose precincts We did bless) suggests a location in the "Holy

Land" (cf. 21:81; 7:137; 34:18). Neal Robinson states:

The [Muslim] tradition which identifies it [i.e., al-Masjid al-Aqsa] with the Temple Mount in

Jerusalem makes admirable sense in view of the fact that the 'place of worship' (masjid) whose

destruction is evoked in v. 7 [i.e., 17:7] is clearly the Temple.[4]

This view is also shared by many western scholars.[5]

As it was mentioned earlier that masjid refers to a place of prostration without any

religious distinction; an excellent example of the usage of the word "masjid"

referring to a non-Islamic sanctuary can be seen in the verse 17:7. The verse

describes briefly the destruction of the masjid in Jerusalem (i.e., the Temple) by the

enemies of Children of Israel. Allah says in the Qur'an that the destruction of the

Temple in Jerusalem was a punishment was inflicted upon the Children of Israel for

their tyranny and arrogance.

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Now that the linguistic issues are clarified, let us now turn to the legal issues (i.e.,

Islamic Law) concerning the word masjid. Al-Zarkashi says:

Masjid from a legal point of view

From a legal point of view it refers to every place on earth since the Prophet - peace be upon

him - said: "The earth was made a masjid for me" which is a particularity of this ummah. This

was said by the Qadi `Iyad because the previous nations used not to pray except in the places

they were sure of their pureness whereas we were allowed to perform the prayers in any place

not known to be impure.[6]

Further he emphasizes:

Since prostration is the most honourable act in prayer because of the nearness of the servant to

his Lord, the name of the location was derived from it. This is why we call it masjid [location of

sujud / prostration] and not marka` [place of ruku` / inclination].[7]

In summary, masjid from a linguistic point of view means a "place of prostration"

without any religious distinction. From a legal point of view the word masjid in

shari`ah constitutes every place on earth that is fit for prostration. In other words

masjid does not designate a building but only a "place of prostration"; the place may

or may not have the building. In support of the argument, we quote hadith #323 in

Sahih al-Bukhari that has already been mentioned by al-Zarkashi:

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Muhammad Ibn Sinan, i.e., al-`Awqi told us, Hushaym told us; and Sa`id Ibn an-Nadr told me,

Hushaym informed us that Sayyar informed us, Yazid, i.e., Ibn Suhayb al-Faqir told us, Jabir Ibn

`Abd Allah told us:

The Prophet, peace be upon him, said, "I have been given five things which were not given to

any amongst the Prophets before me. These are:

1. Allah made me victorious by awe [by His frightening of my enemies] for a distance of one

month's journey.

2. The earth has been made for me [and for my followers] a "masjid" [Arabic: a place for

prostration] and a means of purification. Therefore, my followers can pray wherever the time of

a prayer is due.

3. The booty has been made halal [lawful] for me [and was not made so for anyone else].

4. Every Prophet used to be sent to his nation exclusively but I have been sent to all mankind.

5. I have been given the right of intercession [on the Day of Resurrection].[8]

So, according to this hadith, any place on the earth is a masjid for Muslims.

Therefore, whether there was a building or not when the Prophet made his heavenly

trip, it is the location of the "Farthest Mosque" that is intended by the verse and not a

building per se because the location where it lies was blessed by God as mentioned in

verse 17:1 "the Farthest Mosque, whose precincts We did bless". Therefore, no one

can claim that the word "masjid" in the Islamic terminology refers necessarily to a

building. Imam Ibn Hajar confirms this opinion in Fath al-Bari (his commentary on

Sahih al-Bukhari) :

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(the earth has been made for me a "masjid")

means a place for prostration, i.e., prostration is not restricted to any particular place of the

earth. It may also be a metaphor of a construction built for prayer. This is due to the fact that

once prayer is authorized everywhere on earth it becomes like a mosque for that purpose. Ibn

al-Tin said: "The earth has been made for me a masjid and a means of purification" both were

given to the Prophet, peace be upon him, while it was only a place for worship for others and

was not a means of purification, because Jesus used to walk around and pray whenever prayer

was due. Al-Dawudi said likewise before him. It was also said that they [the previous

generations] were authorized to perform prayer in places known for sure to be pure, whereas

this ummah is authorized to pray anywhere on earth except in the places known for sure to be

impure. The strongest opinion is that of al-Khattabi who says that earlier nations were

authorized to perform prayer in special places like synagogues and churches. This is confirmed

by the wording of the narration of Ibn Shu`ayb "And before me people prayed in their

churches." This is a controversial[?] wording but the specificity was established [??]. This is

supported by the narration of al-Bazzar from the hadith of Ibn `Abbas similar to the present

hadith which includes "Prophets did not pray until they reached their chamber".[9]

Before we close this issue, one should realize that verse 17:1 also speaks of "The

Sacred Mosque" which is in Makkah around the Ka`bah. Did a building for the

mosque exist there in the time of the Prophet? The answer is that the Ka`bah was

there but there was no building for the mosque. This further adds to the argument that

the word masjid in this verse refers to a place of performing the prostration and does

not imply the presence of a "building" in the modern understanding.

The above understanding of the word masjid as a place of worship not building per se

is also well supported by archaeological and historic evidence. Below we present a

picture of an early mosque in a place called Besor in Occupied Palestine.[10]

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Figure 2: Besor masjid

Figure 3: Besor mosque, The Qiblah

Moshe Sharon comments about the Besor mosque. He says:

To the west of the village on the top of the hill, overlooking the valley and the houses of the

village, was the threshing floor, and to the south of it a small open mosque with a rectangular

mihrab made of 3 blocks of stones [bottom figure]. The mosque was built to a height of

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probably two layers of stones, no more than 0.5 m., and was almost square, about 3 x 3 m. and

could contain no more than 8-10 men at a time.[11]

There are many other examples of early mosques from Negev region that are nothing

but a few stones arranged to mark the mihrab.[12,13]

Figure 4: Mosque at Nahal Oded with the upright stone showing the direction of the qibla.

Figure 5: Mosque at Be'er Karkom with a rounded southward-facing mihrab niche.

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Figure 6: Mosque at Har Oded facing south-southeast.

Figure 7: Modern Bedouin open mosque in Transjordan

It is clear from the above pictures that a mosque is simply a place where Muslims

prostrate in prayer. It does not need an elaborate building to be called a mosque. The

open mosques that we have seen above do exist even today in Middle East and North

Africa.

Concerning early mosques, Creswell states:

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... their [i.e., Muslims'] architectural resources, before they started in their career of conquest,

were barely enough to give expression to their needs. In other words Arabia constituted an

almost perfect architectural vacuum... The first mosques in the great hiras, or half nomadic

encampments of the conquest, such as Basra, Kufa and Fustat, were primitive in the extreme,

and in Syria the first mosques were churches that had been converted or merely divided: In fact

there is no reason for believing that any mosque was built as such in Syria until the time of al-

Walid (705-15) or possibly `Abd al-Malik (685-705), for over a generation the Arabs remained

quite untouched by any architectural ambitions...[14]

It is worth noting that the Prophet disliked extravagance and impressive architecture

in buildings, especially mosques. The relative simplicity of early mosques is in fact a

historical example of how the Prophet's Companions diligently followed his wishes.

This is true to a greater extent even today.

3. Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa: A Place Of Prostration For Jews

The Qur'an refers to al-Aqsa as a masjid, a place of prostration. Was this place used

for prostration in early times?

Al-Masjid al-Aqsa and the surrounding area (i.e., Dome of the Rock among others) is

usually identified with the place where the Temple of Solomon once stood. Bet ha-

Miqdash, as the Temple is usually known in Jewish literature, was primarily a place

of assembly for the entire people, for purposes of sacrifice, prayer, and thanksgiving.

It is in the prayer ritual that prostrations were performed by the priests.

Encyclopaedia Judaica provides an interesting account of the prayer ritual by the

priests of the Temple.

The priest who had gathered the coals entered the sanctuary first, scattered them over the

incense altar, prostrated himself, and departed. Then the priest who was chosen by lot to offer

the incense entered, bearing the pan of incense in his hand. He was accompanied by a priest

appointed for this task who instructed him in the proper ritual, and he did not offer it until he

was told: "Offer the incense!" The officiating priest waited until the space between the hall and

the altar was cleared of people, offered up the incense, prostrated himself, and departed (Tam.

6; Kelim end of ch. 1). During the offering of the incense in the sanctuary, the people used to

gather in the azarah for prayer, and even outside the Temple these times were set aside for

prayer (cf. Luke 1:10; Judith 9:1). After the departure of the priest who had offered the

incense, all the priests filed into the sanctuary, prostrated themselves, and went out again.[15]

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It is interesting to note that the Temple was considered as the only place of prostration

by some Rabbis and that they would refuse to completely prostrate outside the

Temple in Jerusalem.[16]

The Jewish concept of worship has extensive vocabulary, out of which hishtahawah,

"to prostrate oneself," is the most frequently used in the Hebrew Bible (86 times).[17]

4. Yet Another Problem!

In the same article, the missionaries express another objection:

In Yusuf Ali's commentary on this verse we read: "The Farthest Mosque must refer to the site of

the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem..." So, it is interpreted to be not the building itself, but

only the site, the location where it had been. I might be wrong, but this seems to be

contradicted by a hadith and Muhammad's understanding that Al-Masjid-ul-Aqs-a is something

that is built, not just a location. Al-Masjid-ul-Haram after all was a building.

Sahih Bukhari, Volume 4, Book 55, Number 636:

Narrated Abu Dhaar:

I said, "O Allah's Apostle! Which mosque was built first?" He replied, "Al-Masjid-ul-Haram." I

asked, "Which (was built) next?" He replied, "Al-Masjid-ul-Aqs-a (i.e. Jerusalem)." I asked,

"What was the period in between them?" He replied, "Forty (years)." He then added, "Wherever

the time for the prayer comes upon you, perform the prayer, for all the earth is a place of

worshipping for you."

This hadith actually introduces yet another problem. Abraham supposedly (re)built the Kaaba,

(and Abraham lived about 2000 BC) and the Temple was built by Solomon in about 958-951 BC,

then Muhammad gave another historically false information based on a major confusion about

the time when these people lived.

Firstly, we have already shown that the word masjid does not necessarily refer to a

building but rather to a location, i.e., the place of prostration. Secondly, the

missionaries try to deceive the readers in the above paragraphs. Indeed, they admit the

Islamic opinion that Abraham rebuilt the Ka`bah (it was Adam who built it originally

according to the Islamic tradition), but for unjustified reason they overlook the

Islamic traditions addressing the construction of the farthest mosque, presumably to

generate a "contradiction".

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They identify the Farthest Mosque with the Temple of Solomon without further

justification, and point out an error that they had invented themselves. Let us for

example see what Imam Ibn Hajar says about this hadith in Fath al-Bari:

His saying (40 years)

Ibn al-Jawzi said: It raises a problem since Abraham built the Ka`bah and Solomon built Bayt

al-Maqdis [another name of al-Masjid al-Aqsa cf. Hebrew Bet ha-Miqdash] and there are 1,000

years between them. His evidence for saying that it is Solomon - peace be upon him - who built

the Farthest Mosque is the narration of al-Nasa'i from the hadith of `Abd Allah Ibn `Amr Ibn al-

`As attributed to the Prophet with an authentic isnad that "When Solomon built Bayt al-Maqdis

he asked God the Most High for three things etc." and in al-Tabarani from the hadith of Rafi`

Ibn `Umayrah that "David - peace be upon him - started building Bayt al-Maqdis but God

inspired him: I shall accomplish its building with Solomon" and the hadith has a story. He [Ibn

al-Jawzi] said: "The answer to that is that the mention concerns the first construction and the

foundation of the mosque and it is not Abraham who built the Ka`bah for the first time nor is it

Solomon who built Bayt al-Maqdis for the first time. Indeed, we have narrated that the first one

who built the Ka`bah is Adam. Then his progeny spread out on earth. Therefore, it is possible

that one of them built Bayt al-Maqdis. Later, Abraham (re)built the Ka`bah according to the

Qur'an." Likewise, al-Qurtubi said: The hadith does not indicate that Abraham and Solomon

were the first ones to build the two mosques. It was only a renovation of what had been

founded by others.[18]

After quoting other opinions, Ibn Hajar insists :

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But the possibility mentioned by Ibn al-Jawzi is more pertinent. And I found evidence supporting

those who say that it is Adam who founded both mosques. For instance, Ibn Hisham mentioned

in "Kitab al-Tijan" that when Adam built the Ka`bah, God ordered him to walk to Bayt al-Maqdis

and build it and so he did and offered worship in it. And the construction of the House [Arabic:

al-Bayt, i.e., the Ka`bah] is famous and we have mentioned earlier the hadith of `Abd Allah Ibn

`Amr that the House was elevated in the time of the flood until God showed Abraham its

location. Ibn Abi Hatim narrated from the way of Ma`mar from Qatadah: God founded the House

with Adam when he descended. But Adam missed the voices of the Angels and their prayers.

Therefore, God told him: I sent down a House around which [people] will revolve like it is

revolved around my Throne, so set out to it. Adam set out to Makkah - He had descended in

India, and his steps were enlarged until he reached the House and revolved around it. It was

also said that when he had prayed at the Ka`bah, he was ordered to set out to Jerusalem where

he built a masjid [mosque] and prayed therein so that it became a qiblah to a part of his

progeny.[19]

In summary, the verse 17:1 refers to the holy locations in Jerusalem and Makkah

because they are blessed regardless of the presence or absence of a building at the

time of the heavenly trip of Prophet Muhammad. From an Islamic point of view,

evidence has been given by eminent Muslim scholars like Ibn Hajar and Ibn al-Jawzi

showing that it was Adam who built both mosques for the first time and that the job of

Abraham and Solomon was only a renovation/reconstruction of these sanctuaries.

5. Conclusions

The word masjid from a linguistic point of view refers to a place of prostration

without any religious distinction. From a legal point of view the word masjid in

shari`ah constitutes every place on earth that is fit for prostration, whether or not it is

a building.

The verse 17:1 may very well refer to the holy locations in Jerusalem and Makkah

because they are blessed regardless of the presence or absence of a building at the

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time of the heavenly trip of Prophet Muhammad from Makkah to Jerusalem to the

Heavens. From an Islamic point of view, evidence has been given by eminent Muslim

scholars like Ibn Hajar and Ibn al-Jawzi who have discussed the issue. They have

shown that it was Adam who built both mosques for the first time and that the duty of

Abraham and Solomon was only a renovation/reconstruction of these sanctuaries.

And Allah knows best!

Further Reading

Arda Wiraz Namag (Iranian "Divina Commedia") And The Prophet's(P) Night

Journey

Appendix: Who Turned The Temple Mount Into A Garbage

Dump?

Let's now deal with some side issues. The Christian missionaries tell us that when the

Muslims conquered Jerusalem they found the Temple Mount filled with garbage:

"When the Arabs conquered Jerusalem they found the Temple Mount abandoned and filled with

refuse. ... `Umar ordered it cleaned and performed a prayer there. The sanctuary [the Dome of

the Rock] ... was built by Caliph `Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan around 72/691."

Two question now arise, who abandoned the Temple Mount and why was it filled it

with rubbish? The facts become clearer when we actually fill in the blanks "..." in the

Christian missionaries' quotation:

When the Arabs conquered Jerusalem they found the Temple Mount abandoned and filled with

refuse. The abandonment of the Temple site was in accordance with Jesus' prophecy that not a

stone would be left standing on another. `Umar ordered it cleaned and performed a prayer

there.[20]

So, it was the Christians who abandoned the Temple some 600 years before the

Muslims entered it. But who used the Holy place a rubbish dump?

Ever since the Persian occupation, when the Jews had resumed worship on the platform, the

Christians had used the place as the city rubbish dump. When `Umar reached the old ruined

gates of the Temple, says the Muslim historian Mujir al-Din, he was horrified to see the filth,

"which was then all about the holy sanctuary, had settled on the steps of the gates so that it

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even came out into the streets in which the gate opened, and it had accumulated so greatly as

almost to reach up the ceiling of the gateway." The only way to get up to the platform was to

crawl on hands and knees. Sophronius went first and the Muslims struggled up behind. When

they arrived at the top, the Muslims must have gazed appalled at the vast and desolate expanse

of Herod's platform, still covered with piles of fallen masonry and garbage.[21]

It was the Christians! The Christian attitude towards Jerusalem can be understood by

reading the New Testament. Paul's Epistles and the Book of Revelation may have

defined a theological framework for the attitude towards Jerusalem, but the two

synoptic Gospels of Luke (19:42-44) and Matthew did more than that. They also

provided guidelines for political or quaispolitical actions after Christianity became the

officially established religion of the Roman Empire. The Gospels relate how Jesus

rebuked his disciples when they admired the Temple's beauty from the Mount of

Olives: "His disciples came to point out to him the buildings of the Temple. But he

answered them, 'You see all these, do you not? Truly, I say to you, there will not be

left any stone upon another.'" (Matthew 24:1-2).

Art historians such as Nuseibah and Grabar have reached a similar conclusion

concerning the Christian attitude towards the Temple Mount:

More importantly, not only was the Haram left barren, but that very barrenness was given the

Christian significance of fulfilling Christ's prophecy, "There will not be left here one stone upon

another that shall not be thrown down" (Mark 13:2). The ruins of the Jewish Temple and

whatever else had been there were to remains as signs of the triumph of Christianity.[22]

Thus the Christians preferred to leave Temple as it was after its destruction; it was left

abandoned and became a place of dumping city garbage. It would not be out of place

to cite the attitude towards Jerusalem in the early Christian literature. We will take the

examples from the writings of John Chrysostom and Athanasius, both of them

contemporaries. John Chrysostom of Antioch was the founding father of Christian

anti-semitism, whose writing against Jews are extremely vitriolic and of bad taste (no

wonder the Christian Church honoured him!).[23] He lived during the period (4th

century CE) when Christian eschatology was being linked to Jerusalem or

(euphemistically) the Temple Mount. In the wake of Jewish proselytizing efforts,

which he feared would empty the churches, Chrysostom vented unbridled wrath

against the Jews of Antioch, levelling various accusations against Jews and Judaism.

He censured the Jews for celebrating Passover outside Jerusalem, thereby disobeying

their own commandments.[24] Above all, he claimed that Jerusalem's destruction

testified the truth of Christianity. Jerusalem has been in ruins and lost to the Jews for

three hundred years; why should they await a change?[25] They tried to rebuild the

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Temple three times - in the time of Hadrian (Bar Kochba revolt), Constantine (an

unknown attempt) and Julian. All the attempts failed. It should make amply clear to

the Jews that their status will not change. It is true that the prophets referred to an end

to exile, but they did not mean the present exile, which is eternal.[26] In this way,

Jerusalem's status came to be identified by the Christians with the fate of Jews; the

latter's final, eternal defeat.

Like his contemporary John Chrysostom, Athanasius was involved in anti-Jewish

polemics but not as bitterly as the former.[27] Athanasius thought that the incorporation

of Jerusalem into Christian Empire provides the proof of new religion's truth.

According to Jesus' prophecy, the Holy City as well as Temple have been taken from

them forever.

The Christian Jerusalem, before of the advent of Islam, had undergone subtle

developments. The Christians had appropriated a body of Jewish traditions

concerning the Temple Mount (some of them mentioned in the New Testament) and

were now applied to the Church of Holy Sepulchre and Church of Resurrection. The

process of "consecration" of Jerusalem and making it into a Christian city met with

little opposition; the pagans had no opposition, while the Jews had not been permitted

to reside in Jerusalem since the time of Hadrian (the Bar Kochba revolt). And as

expected the Temple Mount was left in the state of pile of fallen masonry and rubbish.

It was Islam that restored the sanctity of Temple Mount, and made it a place of

prostration and prayer.

References

[1] `Abdallah `Abd al-Fadi, Is The Qur'an Infallible?, 1995, Light of Life: Villach

(Austria), p. 271.

[2] A. Duncan, The Noble Sanctuary: Portrait Of A Holy Place In Arab Jerusalem,

1972, Middle East Archive: London (UK), p. 24.

[3] Badr al-Din bin Muhammad bin Bahadir al-Zarkashi, I`lam Al-Sajid Bi-Ahkam

Al-Masajid, 1995, Dar al-Kutub al-`Ilmiyyah, Beirut (Lebanon), p. 13.

[4] N. Robinson, Discovering The Qur'an: A Contemporary Approach To A Veiled

Text, 1996, SCM Press Ltd.: London, p. 192.

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[5] See for example the recent work of Heribert Busse, "The Destruction Of The

Temple And Its Reconstruction In The Light Of Muslim Exegesis Of Sura 17:2-

8", Jerusalem Studies In Arabic And Islam, 1996, Volume 20, p. 1.

[6] Al-Zarkashi, I`lam Al-Sajid Bi-Ahkam Al-Masajid, op. cit., pp. 13-14.

[7] ibid., p. 14.

[8] Sahih al-Bukhari, available online.

[9] Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari available online.

[10] M. Sharon, Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarium Palaestinae, 1999, Volume II,

Brill: Leiden, see plates P29 and P30.

[11] ibid., p. 172.

[12] G. Avni, "Early Mosques In The Negev Highlands: New Archaeological

Evidence On Islamic Penetration Of Southern Palestine", Bulletin Of The

American Schools Of Oriental Research, 1994, Volume 294, pp. 83-100. All the

pictures are taken from here.

[13] U. Avner & J. Magness, "Early Islamic Settlement In The Southern Negev",

Bulletin Of The American Schools Of Oriental Research, 1998, Volume 310, pp.

39-57. This articles throws further light on an early Islamic open mosque and a

settlement.

[14] K. A. C. Creswell, A Short Account Of Early Muslim Architecture, 1968,

Librairie Du Liban, Beirut, pp. 15-16.

[15] "Temple", Encyclopaedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition), 1997, Judaica

Multimedia (Israel) Limited.

[16] "Tahnum", ibid.

[17] "Worship", ibid.

[18] See ref. 4.

[19] ibid.

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[20] "Dome Of The Rock" in C. Glassé, The Concise Encyclopaedia Of Islam,

1989, Stacey International: London, p. 102.

[21] K. Armstrong, Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, 1997, Ballantine Books:

New York, p. 229.

[22] S. Nuseibah & Oleg Grabar, The Dome Of The Rock, 1996, Thames and

Hudson: London (UK), p. 35.

[23] St. John Chrysostom (translated by P. W. Harkins), Discourses Against

Judaizing Christians, 1979, The Catholic University Of America Press: Washington,

DC.

[24] ibid., See discourse IV: 4.9, 5.1-3, 6.1-5.

[25] ibid., See discourse V: 3.13-15; also 5.10

[26] ibid., See discourse V: 4.5.

[27] St. Athanasius (translated by C. S. M. V.), The Incarnation Of The Word Of

God: Being The Treatise Of St. Athanasius De Incarnatione Verbi Dei, 1944, The

Centenary Press: London (UK), see the chapter VI, "Refutation Of The Jews", p. 64.

The images above are reproduced from the stated sources under the provisions of the

copyright law. This allows for the reproduction of portions of copyrighted material for

non-commercial, educational purposes.

With the exception for those images which have passed into the public domain, the

use of these images for commercial purposes is expressly prohibited without the

consent of the copyright holder.

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