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© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning
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© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

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Page 1: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Chapter 8Learning

Page 2: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Learning: Chapter 8Lecture Overview

• Learning

• Conditioning– Classical conditioning– Operant conditioning

• Cognitive Social Learning

• Neuroscience and Evolution

Page 3: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Learning

• Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from practice or experience– Learning can be unlearned– Observation can lead to learning– Learning requires an operational memory

system

Page 4: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Classical Conditioning• Certain stimuli can elicit a reflexive

response– Air puff produces an eye-blink– Smelling a grilled steak can produce

salivation

• The reflexive stimulus (UCS) and response (UCR) are unconditioned

Page 5: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Classical Conditioning

• In classical conditioning, the CS is repeatedly paired with the reflexive stimulus (UCS)– Conditioning is best when the CS precedes the UCS– The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus

(CS) after it is repeatedly paired with the UCS

• Eventually the CS will produce a response (CR) similar to that produced by the UCS

Page 6: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Pavlov’s Experiment

Page 7: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Analysis of Pavlov’s Study

Page 8: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Conditioning of Emotional Responses

• John Watson documented that conditioning of emotional responses in the Little Albert study– CS: a white rat– UCS: a loud banging sound– UCR: fear/startle response– Eventually Albert exhibited fear of the white

rat

Page 9: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Conditioned Emotional Responses

• Conditioned Emotional Response: a classically conditioned emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus

Page 10: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Examples of Classical Conditioning

• Other instances of learning– conditioning of attraction in advertising

• Brand name (CS) + attractive model (UCS) => liking (UCR)

– aversion• Flavor (CS) + illness (UCS) => flavor aversion

(UCR)

Page 11: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Generalization and Discrimination

• Stimulus Generalization: Learned response not only to the original stimulus but also to other similar stimuli– Little Albert feared stimuli resembling rat

• Stimulus Discrimination: Learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli– Pavlov’s dogs learned to discriminate between tones

Page 12: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Extinction• Pairings of the CS and UCS lead to

conditioning whereas presentation of the CS only leads to loss of the conditioned response

• Extinction refers to loss of response to a CS presented without the UCS– Extinction is not forgetting

• Extinction is useful in clinical situations– Extinction of a phobia can be treated by exposure

to the CS only

Page 13: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Extinction

Page 14: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Spontaneous Recovery

• Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction

Page 15: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Higher-Order Conditioning

• Higher-Order Conditioning: A neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) through repeated pairings with a previously conditioned stimulus (CS).– Children learn to pair McDonald’s restaurant

with food, and later learn that the two golden arches are a symbol for McDonald’s

Page 16: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Higher-Order Conditioning

Page 17: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life

• Prejudice

• Phobias

• Medical Treatments

• Advertising

Page 18: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Classical Conditioning and Prejudice

Page 19: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Operant Conditioning

• Organisms make responses that have consequences– The consequences serve to increase or

decrease the likelihood of making that response again

– The response can be associated with cues in the environment

• We put coins in a machine to obtain food• But we refrain when an Out of Order sign is

placed on the machine

Page 20: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Key Aspects of Operant Conditioning

• In operant conditioning, the stimulus is a cue, it does not elicit the response

• Operant responses are voluntary

• In operant conditioning, the response elicits a reinforcing stimulus, whereas in classical conditioning, the UCS elicits the reflexive response

Page 21: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Key Terms of Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcement is any procedure that increases the response

• Punishment is any procedure that decreases the response

• Types of reinforcers:– Primary: satisfy a biological need– Secondary: have learned value

Page 22: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Reinforcement/Punishment

Page 23: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous: reinforcement occurs after every response– Produces rapid acquisition and is subject

to rapid extinction

• Partial: reinforcement occurs after some, but not all, responses– Responding on a partial reinforcement

schedule is more resistant to extinction

Page 24: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Partial Reinforcement Schedules

• Ratio: schedules based on responses– Fixed: every nth response is reinforced– Variable: ratio varies unpredictably

• Interval: schedules based on time– Fixed: interval is x in length (e.g. 1 min)– Variable: interval varies unpredictably

Page 25: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Reinforcement Schedules

Page 26: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Shaping

• Shaping: Reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired response

Page 27: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Side Effects of Punishment

• Increased aggression

• Passive aggressiveness

• Avoidance behavior

• Modeling

• Temporary suppression

• Learned helplessness

Page 28: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Summary of Conditioning

Page 29: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Applying Operant Conditioning

• Provide immediate and clear feedback • Reinforcers and punishers should be

presented as close in time to the response as possible

• Reinforcement and punishment must be consistent

• Feedback must follow subject’s behavior, not precede it

Page 30: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Biofeedback• Feedback allows for control of responses

– Most operant responses are voluntary motor system responses

– The autonomic nervous system (ANS) does not provide sufficient sensory feedback to the brain to allow for conscious control

• Biofeedback uses electronic devices to provide feedback and control of ANS function (e.g. skin temperature)

Page 31: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Biofeedback

Page 32: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Cognitive-Social Theory• Cognitive-social theory: uses learning principles

in combination with an emphasis on thought processes

• Observational learning refers to the notion that humans can learn through observation of models– Requires attention to the model– Involves cognitive abilities to organize and

remember the modeled behavior– Requires practice of the modeled behavior– Person must decide to use the modeled behavior

Page 33: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Cognitive-Social Learning

• Insight: Sudden understanding of a problem that implies the solution– Kohler’s chimpanzees

• Cognitive Map: A mental image of a three-dimensional space that a person or animal has navigated

• Latent Learning: Hidden learning that exists without behavioral signs– Tolman’s rats

• Scaffolding: A more experienced person adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the student’s current performance level; combines shaping and modeling

Page 34: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Neuroscience of Learning• Learning involves changes in the brain

– Biochemical changes noted during learning include changes in the ability of neurons to release transmitters across the synaptic cleft

– Anatomical changes during learning include circuits within particular brain regions:

• E.g. the cerebellum plays a role in certain forms of classical conditioning (involving an eye blinking)

Page 35: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Instincts

• Innate behaviors are inborn, emerge during certain periods, and are not the result of learning

Page 36: © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E Chapter 8 Learning.

© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Evolution and Learning

• Biological Preparedness: Built-in readiness to form associations between certain stimuli and responses

• Instinctive Drift: Conditioned responses shift (or drift) toward innate response patterns